Worlds Apart Trading Together: The organisation of long-distance trade between Rome and India in Antiquity (Archaeopress Roman Archaeology)

Worlds Apart Trading Together sets out to replace the outdated notion of ‘Indo-Roman trade’ with a more informed perspective integrating the new findings of the last 30 years. In order to accomplish this, a perspective focusing on concrete demand from the ground up is adopted, also shedding light on the role of the market in long-distance exchange. Accordingly, the analysis conducted demonstrates that an economically highly substantial trade took place between the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean in the 1st–6th cen. CE, altering patterns of consumption and modes of production in both India, South Arabia and the Roman Empire. Significantly, it can be documented that this trade was organised at the centres of demand and supply, in Rome and India, respectively, by comparable urban associations, the transport in-between being handled by equally well-organised private networks and diasporas of seagoing merchants. Consequently, this study concludes that the institution of the market in Antiquity was able to facilitate trade over very long distances, acting on a scale which had a characteristic impact on the economies of the societies involved, their economic structures converging by adapting to trade and the market. Table of Contents Preface Introduction Chapter 1: What’s in a name? A brief historiography of Indo-Roman trade Chapter 2: Ancient history ‘from below’. Theoretical perspectives Chapter 3: Turning the tables on Indo-Roman trade Chapter 4: The invisible hand of Roman organisations Chapter 5: Demand and supply in Rome and the provinces Chapter 6: The modus operandi of Roman long-distance trade Chapter 7: Towards a wider world of trade in the ancient Indian Ocean Chapter 8: The invisible hand of Indian organisations Conclusion: Worlds apart trading together Maps Bibliography Worlds Apart Trading Together sets out to replace the outdated notion of ‘Indo-Roman trade’ with a more informed perspective integrating the new findings of the last 30 years. In order to accomplish this, a perspective focusing on concrete demand from the ground up is adopted, also shedding light on the role of the market in long-distance exchange. Accordingly, the analysis conducted demonstrates that an economically highly substantial trade took place between the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean in the 1st–6th cen. CE, altering patterns of consumption and modes of production in both India, South Arabia and the Roman Empire. Significantly, it can be documented that this trade was organised at the centres of demand and supply, in Rome and India, respectively, by comparable urban associations, the transport in-between being handled by equally well-organised private networks and diasporas of seagoing merchants. Consequently, this study concludes that the institution of the market in Antiquity was able to facilitate trade over very long distances, acting on a scale which had a characteristic impact on the economies of the societies involved, their economic structures converging by adapting to trade and the market. Cover 1 Copyright Page 4 List of Figures 6 Preface 9 Abbreviations 11 Introduction 13 Chapter 1 16 A brief historiography of Indo-Roman trade 16 What’s in a name? 16 Chapter 2 19 Ancient history ‘from below’ 19 Theoretical perspectives 19 Chapter 3 25 Turning the tables on Indo-Roman trade 25 The collegium of ivory- and citrus wood traders 27 Beyond the mirror: the cultural biography of an ivory statuette 34 Fitting Indian ivory with Roman furniture 48 The shreni of ivory carvers 55 Following the flows of people and products, fashion and furniture 58 Figure 1 28 Inscription of the collegium of negotiatores eborarii et citriarii; CIL VI, 33,885. Source: Borsari 1887: pl. 1. 28 Figure 2 36 Figure 3 36 Ivory statuette from Pompeii, front; height 24.5 cm. Museo archeologico Nazionale di Napoli, in the ‘Gabinetto Segreto,’ inv.no. 149425. Photograph by the author. 36 Same as Figure 2, back. Photograph by the author. 36 Figure 4 37 Same as Figure 2, detail of hole penetrating the crown of the head down to the waist. Photograph by the author. 37 Drawing of Pompeii figurine’s base. Source: Maiuri 1938–9: 112, fig. 1. 39 Figure 5 39 Begram ivory statuette, height 45 cm; Hackin 1939: no. 320a. Source: Hackin 1954: fig. 234. 42 Begram ivory statuette, height 45.6 cm; Hackin 1939: no. 320b. Source: Hackin 1954: fig. 235. 42 Figure 6 42 Figure 7 42 Figure 8 43 Ivory statuette encased in ivory frame at Begram. Source: Hackin 1939: fig. 75 (no. 320a in situ). 43 Elephant-headed ivory leg from Begram, height 26 cm; Hackin 1939: no. 342. Source: Hackin 1939: fig. 229. 44 Figure 9 44 Elephant-headed bed legs, stone relief from Gandhara. Source: Marshall 1960: pl. 91, fig. 127. Copyright: Cambridge University Press. 45 Figure 10 45 Drawing of detail from mural in Ajanta Cave 1, cf. Takata 1971: pl. 89. 46 Figure 11 46 Drawing of detail from mural in Ajanta Cave 17, cf. Takata 1971: pl. 36. 47 Figure 12 47 Figure 13 49 Wooden, three-legged Roman table form Herculaneum, animal legs and griffins’ heads with ivory eyes (= Mols 1999: cat.no. 18). Copyright: S. Mols. 49 Figure 14 51 Roman bronze table converted into brazier. Source: Pernice 1908: 108, fig. 1. 51 Figure 15 52 Wooden armrest support from Loulan, Xinjiang. Source: Stein 1921, IV: pl. XXXIV. 52 Figure 16 53 Ivory faun from the Naples area, approximate height 20–5 cm. In Museo archeologico Nazionale di Napoli, 1st floor, room LXXXVIII, ‘La collezione degli oggetti in avorio ed osso.’ Photograph by the author. 53 Chapter 4 60 The invisible hand of Roman organisations 60 The collegium of goldsmiths and clusters of craftsmen in the jewellery trade 62 The collegium of frankincense and perfume traders 67 The collegium of spice traders and the Pepper Warehouses 69 The organisation of silk-weavers and traders 74 Organising the world of consumption 78 Chapter 5 80 Demand and supply in Rome and the provinces 80 Luxurious spices at everyday prices? 80 Pepper trade in the provinces 84 Perfume trade in the provinces 87 The long reach of interlocking markets 90 Chapter 6 95 The modus operandi of Roman long-distance trade 95 All routes lead to Rome—and India! 95 Networks at work: from Campania to the Red Sea coast and beyond 103 Eastern commerce, Western contracts: from Alexandria to Muziris 109 Taxes, the Alexandrian elite, and how it takes a fox to catch a fox 121 The not-so-invisible hand of Egyptian organisations 125 Big fish and small fry: well off merchants and small-time traders 127 Chapter 7 129 Towards a wider world of trade in the ancient Indian Ocean 129 Egyptian ports of the desert, gateways of the sea 129 Arabs, Axumites, and Indians in the desert 136 The long arm of organised commerce: Petra and Palmyra 139 Allegory of the cave. An inside out view of maritime trade 146 Taxes, trade, and contracting corporations of merchants 154 Merchants making money at the margins 157 Chapter 8 160 The invisible hand of Indian organisations 160 Ivory carvers, weavers, and sea-going merchants in Western India 163 Producing pearls, precious stones, and pepper in South India 176 Organising the world of production 183 Figure 17 165 Outside view of the vihara at Nashik whose verandah is inscribed with Ushavadata’s endowment along its upper walls, Maharashtra. Photograph by the author. 165 Figure 18 171 Inside view of the Karla chaitya hall, Maharashtra. Photograph by the author. 171 Figure 19 179 View of the drip ledge and cave shelter on Mangulam Hill sponsored by the president of the merchants of nearby Vellarai. His inscription can be traced (faintly) along the side of the chiselled cliff face. Tamil Nadu. Photograph by the author. 179 Conclusion 185 Worlds apart trading together 185 Maps 189 Bibliography 199 Map 1: Overview of the Mediterranean World 189 Map 2: Overview of the Indian Ocean 190 Map 3: Latium and Campania, Italia 192 Map 4: Central Mediterranean 192 Map 5: Eastern Mediterranean 193 Map 6: Western Provinces 193 Map 7: Upper Adriatic Sea 194 Map 8: Near East 194 Map 10: Bay of Aden 195 Map 9: Upper Red Sea 195 Map 11: Western Indian Ocean 196 Map 14: North India 197 Map 15: Eastern Indian Ocean 198 Map 16: Central Asia and Tarim Basin 198 Contents Page 5 Rome,India,anriquity,trade,long-distance trade 'worlds Apart Trading Together' Sets Out To Replace The Outdated Notion Of 'indo-roman Trade' With A More Informed Perspective Integrating The New Findings Of The Last 30 Years. In Order To Accomplish This, A Perspective Focusing On Concrete Demand From The Ground Up Is Adopted, Also Shedding Light On The Role Of The Market In Long-distance Exchange. Accordingly, The Analysis Conducted Demonstrates That An Economically Highly Substantial Trade Took Place Between The Mediterranean And The Indian Ocean In The 1st-6th Cen. Ce, Altering Patterns Of Consumption And Modes Of Production In Both India, South Arabia And The Roman Empire. Significantly, It Can Be Documented That This Trade Was Organised At The Centres Of Demand And Supply, In Rome And India, Respectively, By Comparable Urban Associations, The Transport In-between Being Handled By Equally Well-organised Private Networks And Diasporas Of Seagoing Merchants. Consequently, This Study Concludes That The Institution Of The Market In Antiquity Was Able To Facilitate Trade Over Very Long Distances, Acting On A Scale Which Had A Characteristic Impact On The Economies Of The Societies Involved, Their Economic Structures Converging By Adapting To Trade And The Market.--cover Page 4. Kasper Grønlund Evers. Includes Bibliographical References (pages 187-213). Worlds Apart Trading Together sets out to replace the outdated notion of 'Indo-Roman trade' with a more informed perspective integrating the new findings of the last 30 years. In order to accomplish this, a perspective focusing on concrete demand from the ground up is adopted, also shedding light on the role of the market in long-distance exchange. Accordingly, the analysis conducted demonstrates that an economically highly substantial trade took place between the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean in the 1st-6th century CE, altering patterns of consumption and modes of production in both India, South Arabia and the Roman Empire. Significantly, it can be documented that this trade was organised at the centres of demand and supply, in Rome and India, respectively, by comparable urban associations, the transport in-between being handled by equally well-organised private networks and diasporas of seagoing merchants. Consequently, this study concludes that the institution of the market in Antiquity was able to facilitate trade over very long distances, acting on a scale which had a characteristic impact on the economies of the societies involved, their economic structures converging by adapting to trade and the market. This text sets out to replace the outdated notion of 'Indo-Roman trade', integrating new findings from the last 30 years. Analysis conducted demonstrates that highly substantial levels of trade took place between the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean in the 1st-6th c. altering consumption and production in India, South Arabia, and the Roman Empire