دریاهای جهان: ارزیابی زیست‌محیطی. جلد دوم: از اقیانوس هند تا اقیانوس آرام

Cover World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation - Volume II: The Indian Ocean to the Pacific Copyright Contributors Introduction to World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation Acknowledgments, and the Maps References 1. The Arabian Gulf The Region Natural Environmental Variables and Seasonality Climate The Gulf as an Extreme Marine Environment Major Coastal and Shallow Habitats Intertidal Habitats Subtidal Habitats Offshore Systems Climate Change Impacts Resources Fisheries Tourism Human Populations Affecting the Area Coastal Development Wastewater Desalination Shipping Traffic Overfishing Management Summary References Further Reading 2. Oman The Seas of Oman General Oceanography Major Disturbances Major Coastal and Shallow Habitats Coral Communities and Coral Reefs Mangroves Forests Sea Grass Beds Beaches Seaweed Communities Fauna Reptiles Whales and Dolphins Fish Molluscs Echinoderms Protected Areas Climate Change Impacts Human Population Affecting the Area Pollutants and Pollution Petroleum and Tar Halogenated Hydrocarbons Heavy Metals Radioactivity Resources Fisheries Aquaculture Oil, Gas, and Minerals Tourism Management Regimes References Further Reading 3. The Red Sea The Defined Region Physical Oceanography General Circulation Mesoscale Activity Tides Waves Climate Change in the Red Sea Phytoplankton Distribution Patterns Primary Production Major Coastal and Shallow Habitats Coral Reefs Benthic Assemblages Fish Assemblages Mangroves Seagrass Beds Soft Substrate Habitats Resources and Threats to the Sustainable Use of the Red Sea Tourism, Recreation, and Coastal Development Fisheries Aquaculture Sewage, Industrial Effluents, and Solid Waste Shipping, Oil, and Gas Production Management Regimes Conservation Measures and Legal Protective Instruments Protected Areas Protected Species Deficiencies and Missing Measures Summary, Prognoses, and Research Needs References 4. The Northern Mozambique Channel Introduction Geology Oceanography and Productivity Seasonality and Winds The biology of the NMC Biogeography and Biodiversity Corals and Coral Reefs Coral Reef Fish Mangroves Seagrass Beds Tuna Flagship Species Connectivity and Barriers to Dispersal Human Population, Pressures, and Management Human Population Income and Welfare Coastal Fisheries and Aquaculture Tuna Fishery Tourism Extractives—Oil and Gas Maritime Transport and Trade Climate Change Climate Impacts Future Climate Toward Improved Management and Governance From Sectoral and National to Integrated Regional Approaches Green and Blue Economic Approaches People-Centered Approaches From Traditional to Novel Area-Based Management Acknowledgments References Further Reading 5. South Africa The Defined Region Geography, Topography, and Geological Description Physical Oceanography Natural Environmental Variables Climate Freshwater Discharges Major Marine and Coastal Habitats Coastal and Shallow Habitats Mangroves and Saltmarshes Stromatolites Estuaries Seagrass Beds Kelp Forests Corals Offshore Habitats Benthic Habitats and Seamounts Pelagic Climate Change Impacts Ocean Process Sea-Level Rise Temperature Increases Storms Ocean Acidification Climate Change Adaptation Influence of Human Activities on the South African Marine Environment Cities and People, Development, and Coastal Erosion Waste Water Discharge Pollutants Shipping Resources Fisheries Commercial Fishing/Harvesting Aquaculture Subsistence Fishing Challenges to SA Fisheries Oil and Gas, Minerals Tourism Threats to Sustainable Use of Resources Diversity Changes Causes of Diversity Changes in South Africa Productivity Changes Management Regimes Protection and Conservation Measures Protected Species, Habitats, and Areas Marine Areas Managed in South Africa Protected Species Deficiencies and Missing Measures Summary and Prognoses References 6. Madagascar Introduction Coastal and Shallow Marine Habitats Human Populations Affecting the Area Marine Resources Small-Scale Marine and Coastal Fisheries in Madagascar Types of Small-Scale Fisheries Status of Small-Scale Fisheries Destructive Fishing Practises/Effects of Fishing on Marine Habitats Management of Traditional and Artisanal Fisheries Knowledge and Management Gaps and Concerns for Small-Scale Fisheries Climate Change Impacts on Marine and Coastal Ecosystems and Small-Scale Fisheries The Vulnerability of Coastal Fishing Communities to Climate Change and Anthropogenic Impacts Patterns of Vulnerability and Resilience: A Review of Socioeconomic Studies Socioeconomic Impacts—General Predictions and Priority Areas for Action Management Regimes and Needs Adaptation to Climate Change for Coastal Communities in Madagascar Building Ecological Resilience Alternative Livelihoods Building Social Resilience/Adaptive Capacity Conclusions and Main Recommendations References Further Reading 7. The Sundarban Delta Complex The Defined Region Coastal Dunes Wind Pattern and Vigor of Wind Flow Precipitation in the Dune Field Association of Plant Species Role of Plants in Forming Dunes Role of Plants in Arresting Dune Migration Dune Morphology and Their Stages of Formation Human-Induced Stresses Mangroves Plankton in the Sundarban Phytoplankton Microzooplankton Mesozooplankton Algal Blooms Pollution Sediment Geochemistry Trace Metals in Sediments in Bangladesh Mangrove Coastal Regions Trace Metals in Sediments in Indian Mangrove Coastal Regions Assessment of Sediment Trace Metal Pollution Levels Phytoremediation by Mangrove Plants Threats to Wetland Environment Climate Change Effects Impact on Biota Conclusions and Recommendations References Further Reading 8. The Gulf of Mannar Marine Biosphere Reserve, Southern India The Defined Region Geographic, Topography, Geological, and Geomorphic Descriptions Physical Oceanography Natural Environmental Variables and Seasonality Climate, Rainfall and Water Resources Major Coastal and Shallow Habitats Coral Reefs Seagrasses Mangroves Seaweeds Sacred Chanks and Pearl Banks Sea Turtles and Sea Cows Climate Change Impacts Storms and Sea Surface Temperature Climate Change and Corals Tsunami and Corals Human Populations Affecting the Area Coastal Erosion and Accretion Land Reclamation Pollutants Population Growth Threats to Sustainable Use of Resources Management Regimes Protection, Enforcement Mechanism, and Conservation Measures Sustainable Ecotourism Rehabilitation of Coastal Habitats Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve Trust Communities’ Participation Summary References 9. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands Introduction Major Coastal Habitats Coral Reefs Mangrove Seagrass Marine Sponges Tidal Flats Offshore Systems Seamounts Climate Change Impacts Sea Surface Temperature (SST) Human Populations Affecting the Area Impact of Development on Forest Rural and Urban Factors Marine Pollution Land-Based Pollution Marine-Based Pollution Environmental Variables Natural Environmental Variables Physicochemical Parameters Trace Metals Biological Indicators Phytoplankton Zooplankton Intertidal Sediment Fauna Microbes Major Oil Spills Pollution Hotspots Resources Fisheries Tourism Oil and Minerals Threats to Resources Management Systems National Parks and Sanctuaries Human Welfare and Mitigation Measures Missing Measures Summary Acknowledgments References Further Reading 10. The Maldives Archipelago Geographic Overview Monsoon, Currents, and Climate Islands and Shoreline Island Plants Island Reptiles, Amphibians, and Flying Foxes Birds Coral Reefs Species Diversity Mangrove Forests Seagrass Meadows Marine Vertebrate Groups and Their Conservation Concerns Fishes Marine Reptiles Seabirds Marine Mammals Population Demographics and Economy Tourism Coastal Modification and Waste Management Land Reclamation Sand Mining and Dredging Waste Disposal and Chemicals Fisheries Tuna Fishery Baitfish Fishery Shark Fishery Sea Cucumber Fishery Reef Fish Fishery Grouper Fishery Climate Change and Coral Reef Degradation Sea Surface Temperature Precipitation and Extreme Weather Events Sea-Level Rise Coral Bleaching Resilience Crown-of-thorns Starfish Mitigation Actions Protective Legislation Protected Areas Biosphere Reserve Protected Species Challenges for the Future References 11. British Indian Ocean Territory (Chagos Archipelago) Introduction Geography, Topography, Geological description Natural Environmental Variables Major Coastal and Shallow Habitats Coral Decline and Fall on Chagos Reefs Reef Fishes Other Benthic Systems Offshore Systems Temperature Measurements Sea Level Rise Human Populations Affecting the Area The Islands and Conservation Activities Military Presence in Diego Garcia Other Impacts The Commercial Fishery and Bycatch Management Regimes Acknowledgments References 12. Seas of Mauritius The Defined Region Geography and Geological Description Physical Oceanography Natural Environmental Variables, Seasonality Climate Freshwater Discharges Major Coastal and Shallow Habitats Offshore Systems Pelagic and Benthic Systems, Seamounts Climate Change Impacts Sea-Level Rise Temperature Rise pH Changes Cyclones Human Populations Affecting the Area People and Development Pollution Coastal Erosion, Land Fill, and Mining Forest Clearance Shipping Accidents Resources Fisheries Artisanal Fishery Bank Fishery Fish Aggregating Devices Fishery Tuna Fishery Aquaculture Oil and Gas, Minerals Tourism Status of and Threats to Sustainable Use of Marine Resources Seawater Quality Coral Reefs and Reef Fish Status of Coral Reefs Outbreaks of Corallivores and Coral Diseases Reef Fish and Macrobenthos Seagrasses and Mangroves Beaches Other Potential Living Resources Management Regimes Protection and Conservation Measures, Legal Protective Instruments Acknowledgment References Further Reading 13. French Territories in the Western Indian Ocean The Defined Region Reunion Island Mayotte The Iles Eparses Human Pressure Natural Environmental Variables Volcanic Eruptions and Other Stochastic Events Climate Major Coastal and Shallow Habitats Reunion Island Corals and Algae Mayotte Island Coral Community Reef Fish Community Turtles The Iles Eparses Corals/Algae Community Reef Fish Community Turtles Marine Birds Climate Change Impacts The 2016 Bleaching Event Reunion Mayotte Iles Eparses The Impact of Bleaching in the SWIO Human Populations Affecting the Area Coastal Development and Land-Based Pollution in Reunion Island Freshwater Inputs Cyclonic and Swell Impacts Changes in Sessile Community Structure and Cascading Effects Overfishing Land-Based Pollution in Mayotte Overfishing and overharvesting in the Iles Eparses Resources Fisheries, Artisanal and Industrial Aquaculture Threats to Sustainable Use of Resources Oil and Gas Management Regimes Protection and Conservation Measures for Reunion Island Legal Protective Instruments for Mayotte Legal Protective Instruments, Protected Species and Areas for the Iles Eparses Acknowledgments References Further Reading 14. The North-Western Margin of Australia The Defined Region Geography, Topography, Geological Description Physical Oceanography Major Coastal and Shallow Habitats Coral Reefs Macroalgae Mangroves Seagrass Climate Change Impacts Human Presence and Activities in the Area Overview and Demographics Fisheries Aquaculture Agriculture Tourism Oil and Gas Shipping Nuclear Tests Management Regimes Marine Conservation Fisheries Management Other Marine Management Summary and Prognosis Acknowledgments References 15. Australia’s Great Barrier Reef The Defined Region Geological History and Formation Geography and Geomorphology Physical Oceanography Natural Environmental Conditions and Variability Climate Major Rivers and Catchments Major Habitats Coral Reefs Mesophotic Reefs Inter-Reefal Habitats Oceanic Habitats Islands Climate Change Drivers and Impacts Warming Oceans Ocean Acidification Sea-Level Rise Human Populations and Impacts Traditional Owners Coastal Communities and Industries Agriculture and Land Runoff Contaminants of Emerging Concern Shipping and Ports Resources Fisheries Tourism and Recreation Management Governance Legislation and Conventions Protected species, habitats, and areas Managing Water Quality Summary and Prognosis Acknowledgments References Further Reading 16. Taiwan Introduction Major Coastal and Shallow Habitats Coral Reefs Wetlands Special Coastal Habitats: Canyon Climate Change Impacts Typhoons Human Populations Affecting the Area Radiation Pollution New Contaminants Impact of EOCs References 17. The Bohai Sea The Defined Region Geography, Topography, Geological Description Physical Oceanography Sea Surface Temperature and Salinity Currents Natural Environmental Variables, Seasonality Climate, Freshwater Discharges Climate Freshwater Discharges Major Coastal and Shallow Habitats Seagrass Beds Red Tides Estuaries Tidal Flats Climate Change Impacts Sea Level Rise Temperature Rise pH Changes Storms Sea Ice Human Populations Affecting the Sea Cities and People, Development, Economics and Change Land-Based Pollution Marine-Based Pollution Rural Factors Coastal Erosion, Landfill, Mining Coastal Erosion Landfill Mining Pollutants: Pesticides, Nutrients, Radioactivity Shipping Accidents Pollution HotSpots Resources Fisheries Aquaculture Oil and Gas, Minerals Tourism Threats to Sustainable Use of Resources Diversity Changes and Productivity Changes Management Regimes Protection and Conservation Measures, Legal Protective Instruments Protected Species, Habitats and Areas Deficiencies and Missing Measures Summary, Prognoses or Needs Acknowledgments References Further Reading 18. The Yellow Sea The Defined Region Geography, Topography, Geological Description Physical Oceanography Sea Surface Temperature and Salinity Currents Natural Environmental Variables, Seasonality Climate Freshwater Discharges Major Coastal and Shallow Habitats Seagrass Beds Estuaries Tidal Flats Climate Change Impacts Sea Level Rise Temperature Rise pH Changes Storms Ice Melt Human Populations Affecting the Sea Cities and People, Development, Economics and Change Land-Based Pollution Marine-Based Pollution Rural Factors Coastal Erosion, Landfill, Mining Coastal Erosion Landfill Mining Pollutants: Pesticides, Nutrients, Radioactivity Shipping, Accidents Pollution Hot Spots Green Tides and Red Tides Jellyfish Blooms Resources Fisheries Aquaculture Oil and Gas Tourism Threats to Sustainable Use of Resources Diversity Changes Productivity Changes Management Regimes Protection and Conservation Measures, Legal Protective Instruments Protected Species, Habitats and Areas Deficiencies and Missing Measures Summary, Prognoses and Needs Acknowledgments References Further Reading 19. The Coast of Vietnam: Present Status and Future Challenges for Sustainable Development The Defined Region Natural Environmental Variables and Seasonality Major Coastal and Shallow Habitats Climate Change Impacts Human Populations Affecting the Area Resources Management Regimes Summary, Prognoses, or Needs Acknowledgments References Further Reading 20. The West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia The Defined Region Geography Topography Geological Description Natural Environmental Variables and Seasonality Climate Rainfall Physical Oceanography Marine Currents Physical Properties Climate Change Impacts Temperature Rise Rainfall Sea-Level Rise Major Coastal and Shallow Habitats Natural Substrates Mangrove Forests Mudflats Coral Reefs Seagrass Meadows Fresh Water Discharges and Estuary Systems Human Populations Affecting the Study Area Cities and People, Development, Economics, and Change Land-Based Pollution River Catchments Discharge Industrial Pollution Domestic Agriculture and Livestock Aquaculture Effluents Land Reclamation Marine Pollution Priority Categories of Pollution Sources and Parameters Pollution Hotspots Resources Marine Capture Fisheries Inland Aquaculture Resources Oil and Gas Recreation and Tourism Nutrient Dynamics and Productivity Changes Biodiversity Management Regimes Protection and Conservation Measures and Legal Protective Instruments Protected Species, Habitats, and Areas Summary, Prognoses or Needs Acknowledgments References 21. Java Island, Indonesia Introduction The Regional Oceanic System Physical Parameters The Java Sea The Ocean South of Java Island Implications of Climate Change for the Physical System Ocean Primary Production Major Coastal Habitats Coral Reefs Seagrass Beds Mangrove Forests Human Impacts Effects of Land Use Changes Pollution Coastal and Marine Resources Fishery Resources Aquaculture Production Threats to the Sustainable Use of Coastal and Marine Resources Management of Coastal and Marine Resources Synthesis and Future Perspectives References 22. Thailand The Defined Region Geography Gulf of Thailand Andaman Sea Physical Oceanography Gulf of Thailand Andaman Sea Natural Environmental Variables, Seasonality, Natural Catastrophes Climate Freshwater Discharge Gulf of Thailand Andaman Sea Tsunami Floods Major Coastal and Shallow Habitats Mangroves Seagrass Meadows Coral Reefs Gulf of Thailand Andaman Sea Climate Change Impacts Water Temperature Rise Sea Level Rise Storms and Floods Economic Impacts Human Populations Affecting the Area Cities and People Economics and Change Coastal Erosion Pollution Resources Marine Fisheries Shrimp Aquaculture Minerals and Oil Tourism Threats to Sustainable Use of Resources Marine Fisheries Shrimp Aquaculture Tourism Management Regimes Greenhouse Gas Emissions Marine Fisheries Marine Protected Areas Summary, Future Challenges References Further Reading 23. The Philippines Geography, Topography, Geological Description Physical Oceanography and Climate Major Coastal and Shallow Habitats Coral Reefs Mangroves Seagrasses Offshore Systems Pelagic and Benthic Seamounts Cold Water Corals Climate Change Impacts Human Populations Affecting the Area Cities and People, Development, Economics, and Change Pollution Minerals, Oil, and Gas Forest Clearance Coastal Erosion Resources Artisanal and Industrial Fisheries Threats to Sustainable Use of Resources Management Responses Summary References 24. Singapore Geography, Geology, and Physical Oceanography Natural Environmental Variables and Seasonality Major Coastal and Shallow-Water Marine Habitats Habitats in the Johor Strait Habitats in the Singapore Strait Climate Change Impacts Sea Surface Warming Sea-Level Rise Ocean Acidification Storms Human Populations Population, Economy, and Change Pollution Management Pollution Factors Current State Emerging Issues Resources Fisheries and Aquaculture Oil and Gas, Minerals Tourism Threats to Sustainable Use of Resources Diversity and Productivity Changes Management Regimes Integrated Urban Coastal Management Legal Framework for Coastal Management Supporting Plans and Strategies Prognoses and Needs References 25. Sulawesi Seas, Indonesia Origins and Physical Characteristics Physical Oceanography Climatic Zones—Monsoonal Patterns The Land-Sea Interface and Connections Sulawesi Marine Ecosystems and Biodiversity Wallacea and the Coral Triangle “Hotspot” Coral Reefs Mangrove Forests Seagrass Meadows Tomini Bay: A Unique Setting Migratory Species The Base of Marine Food Webs Unique Species Resources of the Sulawesi Seas and Their Exploitation Tourism Mining and Energy Traditional Uses: Disappearing Knowledge Global Issues at Local Scales Management of Sulawesi Seas Open Access: The Predominant Historical and De Facto Paradigm Marine Boundaries Under UNCLOS, Regional Autonomy, and Fisheries Management Zones CCRF, Fisheries Laws, and the Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries Management Sulawesi Perspective on International Initiatives Sulawesi Perspective on Indonesian Initiatives Eco-Regional Initiatives: Tomini Bay Case Marine Protected Areas Species-Based Protection Role of Research Quo Vadis Sulawesi Sea? Natural Recruitment: A Sign of Hope References Further Reading 26. The Spratly Islands Geological Description and Oil Reserves Climate and Oceanographic Features and the Fisheries Biodiversity and the Security of Atolls Fish and Fisheries in the Spratly Islands Source Reefs for the Region Opportunities Cooperation in the Spratly Islands References Further Reading 27. New Caledonia Geography and Topography Geology Physical Oceanography Natural Environmental Variables and Seasonality Climate Seasonality Cyclones ENSO Major Shallow Water Marine and Coastal Habitats Coral Reefs Mangroves Seagrass Meadows and Algal Beds Lagoonal Soft Bottoms Biodiversity Offshore Systems Pelagic Zooplankton Micronekton Nekton Deep-Sea Benthos and Seamounts Climate Change Impacts Present-Day Trends Future Trends Human Populations Affecting the Area Cities and People Population Densities Urban Areas and Urban Growth Development, Economics, and Change Land-Based Pollution (Around Urban Areas) Rural Factors Landfill Agriculture Mining Resources Fisheries Offshore Fisheries Reef and Lagoon Fisheries Subsistence and Recreational Fishing Aquaculture Toward Diversification Biotechnologies Ports and Maritime Transport Tourism Mineral Resources Marine Energy Resources Management Regimes Protected Areas Ecosystem Protection Species Protection Invasive Species Fishing Maritime Traffic Prognoses or Needs Acknowledgment References 28. The Samoan Archipelago The Defined Region Geography, Topography, Geological Description Physical Oceanography Natural Environmental Variables, Seasonality Climate, Freshwater Discharges Major Coastal and Shallow Habitats Coral Reefs Diversity Disease Crown-of-Thorns Starfish Physical Disturbances Introduced and Endangered Species Species Extinction Risks Fish Larvae and Connectivity Summary of Reef Health Soft Substrates Mangroves Seagrass Beds Offshore Systems Pelagic and Benthic, Seamounts Climate Change Impacts Human Populations Affecting the Area Cities and People, Development, Economics, and Change Land-Based Pollution Marine-Based Pollution Coastal Erosion, Landfill, Mining Forest Clearance Pollutants: Pesticides, Industrial, Nutrients, Radioactivity Shipping, Accidents Resources Fisheries, Artisanal, and Industrial Aquaculture Oil and Gas, Minerals Tourism Threats to Sustainable Use of Resources Fishing, Construction Management Regimes Protection and Conservation Measures, Legal Protective Instruments Deficiencies and Missing Measures Summary, Prognoses, or Needs Acknowledgments References Further Reading 29. Current Status of the US Military Atolls in the Pacific: Johnston and Wake Introduction Johnston Atoll Johnston Atoll Current Status Surveys Since Base Closure 2004 Fishes Algae Ciguatera Coral and Crustose Coralline Algae Diseases Coral Bleaching Invasive Marine Species Invasive Terrestrial Species Wake Atoll Wake Current Status Summary of Recent Scientific Studies at Wake Atoll Fishes Corals Coral Diseases Marine Invertebrates Marine Algae Terrestrial Plants Invasive Species Pest Eradication and Contaminants in Fishes Feral Cats Iron Debris Cleanup Summary Acknowledgments References 30. Tonga The Defined Region Geography, Topography, Geological Description Physical Oceanography Natural Environmental Variables and Seasonality Climate Freshwater Sources and Discharges Major Coastal and Shallow Habitats Mangroves and Seagrasses Coral Reef Ecosystems Coral Species Coral Reef Fish Coral Reef Invertebrates Offshore Systems The Abyssal Plain Seamounts and Ridges Hydrothermal Vents Tonga Trench Climate Change Impacts Air Temperature Weather Sea-Level Rise pH Changes and Ocean Temperature Increase Human Populations Affecting the Area Cities and People, Development, Economics, and Change Land-Based Pollution Marine-Based Pollution Rural Factors Coastal Erosion, Landfill, and Mining Forest Clearance Pollutants: Pesticides, Industrial, Nutrients, and Radioactivity Shipping and Accidents Pollution Hotspots Resources Fisheries, Artisanal, and Industrial Resources Aquaculture Oil and Gas and Minerals Tourism Threats to Sustainable Use of Resources Management Regimes Protection and Conservation Measures and Legal Protective Instruments Human Health, Welfare, and Resource Shortage Issues Existing Protective Measures Protected Species, Habitats, and Areas National Parks or Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) References Further Reading 31. The Coral Sea The Defined Region Geology Physical Oceanography Climate Freshwater Discharges Major Coastal and Shallow Habitats Coral Reefs Mangroves Seagrass Beds Offshore Systems Pelagic Habitats Seamounts The Deep Sea Climate Change Impacts Human Populations Affecting the Area Resources Fisheries Shallow Water Artisanal Fisheries Deep-water Fisheries Pelagic Fisheries Aquaculture Conservation and Management Regimes Protected Species, Habitats, and Areas Marine Mammals Seabirds Marine Reptiles Elasmobranchs Deficiencies Summary Acknowledgments References Further Reading 32. Tuvalu The Defined Region Geography and Topography Geological Description Physical Oceanography Natural Environmental Variables, Seasonality Climate Major Coastal and Shallow Habitats Coral Reefs Mangroves Offshore Systems Climate Change Impacts Human Populations Affecting the Area Land-Based Pollution Marine-Based Pollution Coastal Erosion, Landfill, Mining Forest Clearance Pollutants and Pollution Hotspots Resources Fisheries, Artisanal and Industrial Aquaculture Threats to the Sustainable Use of Resources Management Regimes Protection and Conservation Measures, Legal Protective Instruments Human Health, Welfare, and Resource Shortage Issues Protected Species, Habitats, and Areas Summary Acknowledgments References 33. The Hawaiian Archipelago The Defined Region Geography, Topography, Geological Description Physical Oceanography Natural Environmental Variables, Seasonality Climate Rainfall Patterns Major Coastal and Shallow Habitats Coral Reefs Marine Pools (Anchialine Ponds and Tide Pools) Mangroves and Seagrasses Artificial Habitats Offshore Ecosystems Pelagic Seamounts Deep Benthic Habitats Biodiversity, Connectivity, and Endemism Protected Species Marine Mammals Sea Turtles Seabirds Human Populations Affecting the Area Human Use Patterns Across Time Cities and People, Development, Economics, and Change Tourism Fisheries, Artisanal, and Industrial Aquaculture Oil and Gas, Minerals Offshore Renewable Energy Production Anthropogenic Impacts Overfishing Coastal Erosion, Landfill, Mining Forest Clearance Land-Based Pollution Marine-Based Pollution Marine Debris Shipping, Accidents Introduced Species Disease Climate Change Impacts Temperature Increases Sea-Level Rise Changes in Ocean Chemistry Storms Currents Productivity Changes Management Regimes Protection and Conservation Measures, Legal Protective Instruments Human Health, Welfare, and Resource Shortage Issues Marine Managed Areas State-Managed Areas State-Managed Areas in Partnership With Other Agencies and Organizations Hawaiian Islands Humpback Whale National Marine Sanctuary US National Parks Community-Based Management Summary, Prognoses, or Needs References Further Reading 34. The Pitcairn Islands The Defined Region Geography, Topography, and Geological Descriptions Location in the South Pacific Island Differences and Similarities Geological Origins of the Islands The Natural Environment Physical Oceanography Oceanic Currents Winds and Tides Temperature Ranges Nutrients and Water Clarity Climate Major Coastal and Shallow Water Habitats Intertidal Areas/Foreshores Pitcairn Henderson Oeno and Ducie Atolls Lagoons Oeno Ducie Nearshore Waters (Including Coral Reefs) Pitcairn Henderson Oeno Ducie Biodiversity and Biogeographical Origins Offshore Systems Pelagic Systems Benthic Systems Seamounts Climate Change Impacts Sea-Level Rise Increases in Water Temperature Ocean Acidification Human Populations Affecting the Area People, Development, Economics, and Change Economics Development Pollution Coastal Erosion and Run-Off Invasive Species Threat Anchor Damage to Reefs Resources Artisanal and Recreational Fisheries Tourism The Use of Marine Resources and Threats to Their Sustainability Changes to Marine Biodiversity and Productivity Management Regimes Existing Protective Measures Protected Species, Habitats, and Areas The Pitcairn Islands Marine Protected Area MPA Legislation Monitoring Looking Ahead References Further Reading 35. Fiji: Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Introduction Climate and Oceanography Oceanography Seasonal Patterns of Temperature and Rainfall Coastal and Marine Habitats and Ecosystems Major Terrestrial Islands and Habitats Freshwater Wetlands, Lakes, Rivers and Catchments Coral Reefs Mangrove Forests Seagrass Beds Threatened and Protected Species Sea Turtles Sharks Whales and Dolphins Resource Use and Threats to Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Economic Growth and Development Fisheries Aquaculture Coastal Erosion and Watershed Degradation Marine Pollution Tourism Shipping and Shipwrecks Oil, Gas and Mineral Resources Climate Change and Natural Disasters Changing Weather Patterns Coral Bleaching Sea-Level Rise Management and Protective Measures Land and Marine Tenure in Fiji Protection and Conservation Measures, Legal Protective Instruments Protected Species Marine Conservation Agreements Future Projections for Fiji Acknowledgments References Further Reading 36. Nauru The Defined Region Natural Environmental Variables, Seasonality Major Coastal and Shallow Habitats Coral Reefs Reef Flat Algae Fouling Organisms and Introduced Species Reef Slope Ecosystem Coral Fishes Invertebrates Offshore Systems Climate Change Impacts Human Populations Affecting the Area Resources Aquaculture Oil and Gas, Minerals Tourism Threats to Sustainable Use of Resources Management Regimes Recommendations References Further Reading 37. Kiribati: Atolls and Marine Ecosystems Introduction Climate and Oceanography Oceanography Seasonal Patterns of Sea Surface Temperature and Rainfall Coastal and Marine Habitats and Ecosystems Island Atolls Coral Reefs Mangroves Seamounts and Other Deep-Sea Habitats Threatened and Protected Species Turtles Whales and Dolphins Seabirds Resource Use and Threats to Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Coastal and Offsh