دریاهای جهان: ارزیابی محیط‌زیستی. جلد اول: اروپا، آمریکا و غرب آفریقا: ارزیابی محیط‌زیستی

This three-volume set, World Seas: an Environmental Evaluation, is in many ways a second edition to the three-volumeseries published in 2000, Seas at the Millennium (Sheppard, 2000). It contains more than 100 chapters in three volumes: the first two volumes review the coasts of numerous countries or regions around the world (some of the longer chapters embracing very large areas), while the third volume addresses global issues. Cover World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation Volume I: Europe, The Americas and West Africa Copyright Contributors Introduction to World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation Acknowledgments, and the Maps References 1. Antarctic Seas The Defined Region Geography Physical Oceanography Upwelling/Downwelling Ross and Weddell Gyres Natural Environmental Variables and Seasonality Sea Ice Ice Shelves and Icebergs Climate Polar Vortex and the Ozone Hole Pelagic Ecosystems Open Ocean Seasonal Sea Ice Zone Continental Shelf Region Seamounts Benthic Ecosystems Deep Sea Habitats Continental Shelf Nearshore Shallow Water Habitats Subtidal Habitats Under Ice Habitats Macroalgal Habitats Soft Substrate Habitats Fjords Intertidal Habitats Climate Change Impacts Increased Winds Warming Freshening Ocean Acidification Sea Ice Decline Human Populations Affecting the Area People Land-Based Pollution Marine-Based Pollution Shipping Accidents and Other Impacts Coastal Erosion, Landfill, and Mining Pollutants: Pesticides, Industrial, Nutrients, Radioactivity, and POPs Pollution Hotspots Resources Whaling and Sealing Fisheries Oil and Gas and Minerals Tourism Biological Prospecting Threats to Sustainable Use of Resources Management Regimes Protection and Conservation Measures, and Legal Protective Instruments Antarctic Treaty System CAMLR Convention Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty Specialized Bodies Independent International Accords Protected Species, Habitats, and Areas Species Protected Areas Deficiencies and Missing Measures Summary, Prognoses, or Needs Antarctic Krill Box Section Acknowledgment References 2. The Seas Around Greenland: An Environmental Status and Future Perspective Introduction The region Ocean Currents Around Greenland Climate and Weather Ice Conditions Freshwater Discharges Coastal and Shallow Habitats Offshore Ecosystems Anthropogenic Impacts Demography Pollutants Heavy Metals Persistent Organic Pollutants Petroleum Hydrocarbons and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Climate Change Affects Contaminant Trends Shipping Resources Fisheries Hunting Oil and Gas Mines Tourism Management Regimes Protected Areas Protected Species References Further Reading 3. The Environmental Status of Norwegian Coastal Waters Introduction The Region, Environmental Variables, and Important Habitats Geography Climate Freshwater Discharges Major Coastal Habitats Seagrass Beds Kelp Forests Soft Substrate Communities Cold-Water Corals Impacts of Climate Change Overall Trends in Pollutant Inputs and Concentrations Riverine Inputs of Pollutants Into Coastal Areas Contaminants in Coastal Waters of Norway Plastics Disposal of Mine Tailings in Marine Environments Resources Norwegian Capture Fisheries Aquaculture Oil and Gas Tourism Management and Conservation Regimes Protected Species Habitats and Areas Human Health: Consumption Advices References Further Reading 4. The Baltic Sea Introduction Physical Setting Estuarine Circulation Barotropic Inflows Baroclinic Inflows Stagnation and Decreasing Frequency of MBIs Oxygen Dynamics, Anoxia, and Hypoxia Thermal and Haline Stratification Mean Circulation and Mesoscale Eddies Mixing and Upwelling Sea Level Changes, Seiches, and Tides Waves and Storm Surges Sea Ice Major Habitats in the Baltic Sea Biogeochemical Cycles C, N, and P Cycling Marine CO2 System Submarine Groundwater Discharge Chemical Pollution of the Baltic Sea Persistent Organic Pollutants Emerging Pollutants Chemical Munitions in the Baltic Metals and Radioactivity Nutrient Inputs and Eutrophication Resources Commercial and Artisanal Fishing Aquaculture in the Baltic Sea Region Oil and Gas, Minerals Tourism References Further Reading 5. The Bay of Biscay Description of the Area Seasonality and Natural Environmental Variables Climate and Teleconnection Patterns Oceanographic Features River Discharge Water Masses Circulation Mixed Layer Depth Waves and Tides Major Habitats and Ecosystem Components Plankton Bacterioplankton Phytoplankton Zooplankton Ichthyoplankton Benthos Fishes Seabirds Mammals Populations Affecting the Area Human Settlements Extractive Activities Industrial Activities Building and Maintenance of Infrastructure Shipping, Oil Drilling, and Transport Effects of Human Activities Metals Atmospheric Deposition Continental Shelf and Slope Estuaries Focus on Mercury and Organic Pollutants Mercury Organic Pollutants (Including Oil Spills) Conservation and Status Assessment Marine Protection Ecosystem Services Provided Environmental Status Assessment Perspectives Climate Change Trends in Temperature and Salinity Sea Level Rise Storm intensity, Frequency, and Duration Challenges Pressing Issues Within the Bay of Biscay Challenges for the Bay of Biscay References Further Reading 6. The English Channel: La Manche Main Characteristics of the English Channel Geography, Topography, and Geological Description Physical Oceanography Natural Environment Major Coastal and Shallow Habitats Sabellaria Reefs Maerl Seagrass Beds Kelp Forests Estuaries: Rias and Havre Offshore Systems Phytoplankton Main Characteristics and Temporal Changes Phytoplankton Blooms Zooplankton Benthos Megafauna Climate Change Impacts Seawater Temperature Changes Changes in Sea Level Diversity Changes Productivity Changes Human Populations Affecting the Area Cities and People, Development, Economics, and Change: The Ports Land-Based Pollution Marine-Based Pollution and Pollution Hotspots Rural Factors: Input of Nutrients, the Case of the Green Tide Shipping Accidents Wind and Tidal Turbines Non-Native Species Nuclear Power Plants Resources Tourism Management Regimes, Protection, and Conservation Measures Governance Marine Protected Areas Deficiencies and Missing Measures Needs and Prognoses References 7. The Portuguese Coast Historical Context The Defined Region Major Oceanographic Settings Major Coastal Habitats Continental Shelf Benthic Communities Seagrasses Mudflat Benthic Communities Pelagic Resources Antropogenic impacts Pollution Non-native Species Climate Change Coastal Erosion Habitat Loss Water Management in the Portuguese Continental Coast Protection Schemes Final Remarks Acknowledgments References 8. Black Sea Geography, Topography, and Geological Description Physical Oceanography and Climate Circulation Characteristics Main Physical Features and Freshwater Discharges Atmospheric Circulation Major Coastal and Shallow Habitats Offshore Systems Climate Change Impacts Shrinking of the Habitable Area Air Temperature Rise and Precipitations Sea Surface Temperatures Sea Level Rise (SLR) and Erosion pH Change Storms Human Populations Affecting the Area Cities and People Marine-Based Pollution; Pollutants and Pollution Hotspots Coastal Hydrocarbons Oil Pollution in Open Waters, Pollution From Ships Invasive Species Resources Oil and Gas Fisheries Threats and Management Protection and Conservation Measures, Deficiencies Marine Protected Areas Summary, Prognoses, or Needs References Further Reading 9. Greece Geography, Topography, Geological Description Physical Oceanography Natural Environmental Variables, Seasonality Biodiversity Major Habitats Pelagic Habitats Benthic Habitats Rocky Substrates Soft Substrate Habitats Seagrass Meadows Seamounts Lagoons Estuaries (River Mouths) and River Deltas Resources Fisheries, Artisanal, and Industrial Aquaculture Extraction and Development of Hydrocarbons Marine Mining Tourism Human Activities Affecting the Hellenic Seas Economics, and Coastal Development Maritime Transport Climate Change Impacts Impacts of Human Activities on the Marine Environment Biodiversity Changes Nonindigenous Species Introduction Pollution Land-Based Pollution Marine-Based Pollution Pollutants: Pesticides, Industrial, Radioactivity Pollution Hotspots Eutrophication Marine Litter Coastal Erosion, Landfill, Mining Threats to Sustainable Use of Resources Management Regimes Legal Framework and Protective Measures Protection and Conservation Measures, Legal Protective Instruments Marine Protected Areas Protected Species, Habitats Prognoses, Deficiencies and Missing Measures Acknowledgments References 10. Tunisia Introduction Gulfs Gulf of Tunis Gulf of Gabes Coastal Wetlands Bizerte Lagoon Toxic Blooms in Bizerte Lagoon and Influence of Ship Ballasts Ghar El Melh Lagoon Medjerda River Delta Boughrara Lagoon Conclusion Acknowledgment References Further Reading 11. Italian Seas The Italian Seas Geography, Topography, Geological Description Physical Oceanography of the Mediterranean Sea The Adriatic Sea Oceanography Tyrrhenian Sea Oceanography Natural Environmental Variables, Seasonality Climate, Freshwater Discharges Major Coastal and Shallow Habitats Main Habitats Posidonia Meadows Algal Forests Bioconstructions Marine Caves Animal Forests Barrens and Trophic Downgrading Soft Bottoms Transitional Waters Offshore Systems Pelagic Domain Deep-Sea Ecosystems Ecosystem Functioning Climate Change Impacts Sea-Level Rise, Temperature Rise, pH Changes, Storms, Ice Melt Direct Anthropogenic Impacts Contamination Resources Fisheries, Artisanal, and Industrial Aquaculture Oil, Gas, Minerals Tourism Protection and Conservation Measures, Legal Protective Instruments Clean-up, Habitat Restoration or Success Stories Acknowledgments References Further Reading 12. The Coasts of Turkey Introduction The Defined Region Black Sea Geographic Setting Geological Description Physical Oceanography Chemical Oceanography Marmara Sea Geographic Setting Geological Description Physical Oceanography Chemical Oceanography Aegean Sea Geographic Setting Geological Description Physical Oceanography Chemical Oceanography Eastern Mediterranean Sea Geographic Setting Geological Description Physical Oceanography Chemical Oceanography Natural Environment Variables and Seasonality Sea Level Differences Climate Freshwater Inputs Major Coastal and Shallow Habitats Human Populations Affecting the Area Land-Based Pollution (Eutrophication, River and Industrial Activities) Eutrophication and Rivers Industrial Activities Marine-Based Pollution Coastal Erosion Pollutants Metals Organic Pollutants Radioactivity Resources Fisheries Jellyfish Blooms Aquaculture Diversity Changes Management Regimes National Marine Pollution Monitoring Programs Protected Species, Habitats, and Areas References 13. Northern West Coast of Canada Geography, Topography, Geological Description The North and Central Coast of British Columbia Tectonics, Volcanism, and Earthquakes Glaciation Climate Physical Oceanography Seamounts Sedimentary Regime Benthic Flora and Fauna Habitats Shorezone and Euphotic Layer (0–30 m) Mid-Depth Range (30–100 m) Deep Habitats (>100 m) Pelagic Ecology Coastal Offshore Climate Change Impacts Human Populations Affecting the Area Potential Pollution Sources Logging and Fishing Marine Debris Aquaculture Exotic Species Harmful Algal Blooms Marine Resources Fisheries Oil and Gas, Minerals, Wind Generation Management Regimes Access and Health Summary Acknowledgments References Further Reading 14. Southern West Coast of Canada Introduction Tectonics and Vulcanism Glaciation and Oceanography Sedimentary Regimes Benthic Ecology The ShoreZone/Euphotic Layer (0–30 m) Mid-Depth (30–100 m) Deep Habitats (>100 m) Pelagic Ecology Climate Change Human Populations Affecting the Area Pollutants Resources Management Regimes Summary, Prognoses, or Needs References 15. Chesapeake Bay The Defined Region Major Coastal and Shallow Habitats Submerged Aquatic Vegetation Coastal Wetlands Oyster Reefs Flora and Fauna Native Species Assemblages Fisheries Human and Natural Drivers of Change Human Pressures Land Modification Coastal Erosion and Shoreline Armoring Human Surface and Groundwater Use Pollutants Plastics and Microplastics Lost or Abandoned Fishing Gear Invasive Species Aquaculture—Hard Clam and Oyster Climate Change Impacts Climate Trajectories Ecosystem and Species Responses to Climate Change Impacts of Changing Precipitation Impacts of Increasing Water Temperature Impacts of Rising Sea Level Impacts of Changing Storm Activity Managing the Chesapeake Bay References 16. An Environmental Assessment of the North and South Carolina Coasts☆ Physical Setting Coastal Population Growth and Economy Sources of Environmental Degradation Inland Contributions Coastal Development Ecosystem-Level Issues Eutrophication Climate Change Restructuring the Coastal Carolinas Forecast Acknowledgments References Further Reading 17. The Coastal Marine Ecosystem of South Florida, United States The Physical Environment The Florida Everglades Watershed Urban Influences Coastal Habitats Mangroves Status and Trends Local Drivers Seagrasses Status and Trends Local Drivers Coral Reefs Status and Trends Local Drivers Coral Reef Protection in South Florida Coral Reef Fisheries Fisheries Management and Regulations Impacts of Global Climate Change Mangroves Seagrasses Coral Reefs Summary and Needs References Further Reading 18. The Gulf of Mexico The Defined Region Natural Environmental Variables and Seasonality Major Coastal and Shallow Habitats Offshore Systems Climate Change and Impacts Human Populations Affecting the Area Resources Management Regimes Summary and Needs Acknowledgments References Further Reading 19. Southern California Bight Physical and Ecological Setting Human Influence Assessing Human Impacts in the SCB Sediment Quality Approach Extent and Magnitude of Impacted Sediment Quality in the SCB Trends in Extent and Magnitude of SCB Sediment Quality Challenges for the Future Beach Water Quality Approach Extent and Magnitude of FIB Water Quality Exceedances at SCB Beaches Rate of Human Fecal Influence Future Challenges Trash and Debris Approach Extent and Magnitude of Anthropogenic Debris in the SCB Trends in Extent and Magnitude of Anthropogenic Debris of the SCB Future Challenges Ocean Acidification Approach Extent and Magnitude of OA in the SCB Future Challenges Synthesis References Further Reading 20. Canary Islands The Defined Region Geography, Topography, Geological Description Physical Oceanography Human Pressure Natural Environmental Variables Volcanic Eruptions and Other Stochastic Events Major Coastal and Shallow Habitats Offshore Systems The Pelagic Region Seamounts Climate Change Impacts Human Populations Affecting the Area Organic, Inorganic, Haline, and Thermal Point Source Pollution Coastal Development Resources Fisheries, Artisanal, and Industrial Aquaculture Management Regimes Marine Protected Areas Summary, Prognoses, and Needs Acknowledgments References 21. The Azores Introduction The Defined Region Natural Environmental Variables Major Shallow Water Marine and Coastal Habitats and Their Keystone Biotas Azorean Basaltic Hard Shores Mobile Beach Stones Sandy Beaches Wetlands Other Coastal Habitats Marine Flora and Fauna Hard and Soft Shores Ilhéu de Vila Franca Origins of Azorean Shallow Water and Pelagic Biota Wetlands Harbors and Marinas Fishes Sea Birds Offshore Systems Hydrothermal Vents Populations Affecting the Area Islands, Cities and People, Development and Change Effects From Urban and Industrial Activities Rural Factors Coastal Erosion, Landfills Volcanic “Pollution” Hotspots Marine-Based Pollution—Offshore Volcanic Activity Marine Litter Biological Introductions Resources Fisheries Tourism, Whale-Watching, Big Game Fishing, and Diving Shark Diving Protective and Conservation Measures, Management Regimes, and Legal Instruments Conservation Measures, Areas, Habitats, and Species Seabirds Marine Protected Areas Wetlands The Future References Further Reading 22. Bermuda and the Sargasso Sea The Defined Region Bermuda and the Sargasso Sea Geography, Topography, Geological Description Natural Environmental Variables, Seasonality Major Coastal and Shallow Habitats The Sargasso Sea (Oceanic Ecosystems) Climate Change Impacts Human Populations Affecting the Area Resources Management Regimes Summary, Prognoses, or Needs References Further Reading 23. UK Overseas Territories in the Northeast Caribbean: Anguilla, British Virgin Islands, Montserrat The Defined Region Political/Economic Setting Physical Setting Climatological and Oceanographic Setting Shallow Water and Coastal Habitats Mangroves, Wetlands, and Salt Ponds Beaches Seagrass Meadows Coral Reefs Fisheries and Fishing Activity Climate Change The Tourism Industry and Environmental Degradation Protective Measures Marine Protected Areas Fisheries Legislation Coastal Protection Prospectus and Prognoses References 24. Trinidad and Tobago Introduction Bathymetry Population Demographics Currents Climate Sea Surface temperature Major Coastal and Shallow Habitats Fisheries The Influence of Industrialization in Trinidad and Tobago Pollutant Levels in Marine Organisms Contaminant Levels in Marine Environments Trace Metals Trace Organic Contaminants Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons and PAHs Human Health, Welfare, and Resource Shortage Issues Management Regimes Institutional Framework Conclusion References Further Reading 25. The Commonwealth of the Bahamas Introduction Defined Region Geology, Physiography Environmental History and Land Use Change Overview of Island Development and Population Growth Seasonality, Currents, and Natural Environmental Variables Seasonal Changes in Coastal Oceans Tropical Storms, Rainfall, and Natural Disasters Major Shallow Water Marine and Coastal Communities Standard Classifications of Marine and Estuarine Communities Mangroves Coral Reefs Carbonate Sand Plains With Submerged Aquatic Vegetation (Seagrasses and Benthic Algae) Tidal Flats and Oolite Banks: The Great Bahama Bank of the Northwestern Andros Island Environmental Challenges and Management Structure Overview of National Economics, Tourism, and Small Island Development Fishing and Marine Resource Use Climate Change and Sea-Level Rise Acknowledgments References 26. The Turks and Caicos Islands Introduction Defined Region Geology, Physiography Environmental History and Land Use Change Overview of Island Development and Population Growth Seasonality, Currents, and Climate Change Major Shallow Water Marine and Coastal Communities Standard Classifications of Marine and Estuarine Communities Mangroves Coral Reefs Patch Reefs Fringing Reef Systems Submerged Aquatic Vegetation (Seagrasses and Benthic Algae) Environmental Challenges and Management Structure Coastal Land Use and Land Based Sources of Pollution Fishing and Marine Resource Use Climate Change and Sea Level Rise Acknowledgments References Further Reading 27. The Mexican Caribbean: From Xcalak to Holbox The Defined Region Physiographic and Geological Description Natural Environmental Variables and Seasonality Climate and Physical Oceanography Major Habitats Coral Reefs Seagrasses Mangroves Human Populations in the Mexican Caribbean Resource Use Tourism Fisheries Anthropogenic and Climate Change Disturbances Groundwater Pollution Climate Change Impacts Management Regimes National Legislation Natural Protected Areas Summary, Prognosis, and Needs References Further Reading 28. Pacific Coast of Mexico The Region Global Processes that Affect the Pacific Coast of Mexico The Oxygen Minimum Zone (OMZ) of the MP Demographic Trends and Economic Activities Fishing and Aquaculture Pollution Effectiveness of the National Strategy for Biodiversity Conservation References Further Reading 29. Chile: Environmental Status and Future Perspectives Geography and Topography Geological Description Climate Physical Oceanography Pelagic Productivity Benthic Habitats Rocky Shores Sandy Beaches Coastal Wetlands Coastal Biodiversity and Biogeography Human Activities Coastal Human Populations and Economic Activities Coastal Artificial Structures Urbanization and Coastal Land Reclamation Land Use: Agriculture and Forestry Industries, Mining, and wastewaters Waste Management and Plastic Litter Shipping, Transfer, and Invasive Species Artisanal and Industrial Fisheries and Aquaculture Management and Conservation Fisheries Management Conservation Conclusions and Outlook Acknowledgments References Further Reading 30. Río de la Plata: Uruguay The Defined Region Geography, Topography, and Geology Natural Environmental Variability Climatic, Hydrological, and Physical Oceanography Characteristics of Major Coastal and Shallow Ecosystems History of the Human Population and Environmental Consequences Recent Environmental History Present Environmental Status Natural Resources Fisheries Tourism Threats to Sustainable Use of Natural Resources Institutional and Legal Frameworks in Uruguay Summary and Needs References Further Reading 31. Nicaragua: Caribbean Coast The Defined Region Geography Physical Oceanography Natural Environmental Variables and Seasonality Climate Freshwater Discharges Major Coastal and Shallow Habitats Coral Reefs Islands Seagrass Beds Mangroves and Lagoons Offshore Systems Climate Change Impacts Human Populations Affecting the Area Cities and People Development Rural Factors Sea Ports and Shipping Pollutants Resources Fisheries: Artisanal and Industrial Fishery Threats Oil and Gas, Minerals Tourism Management Regimes Generalized Resource Governing Structure Operational Resource Governing Structure Evolution and Current Management Regime of Coastal Fisheries in Nicaragua Fisheries Management Challenges Protected Areas Coral Reef Threats and Management Protected Species Summary, Prognosis, and Needs Acknowledgment References 32. Nicaragua: Pacific Coast The Defined Region Geography, Topography, Geological Description Physical Oceanography Natural Environmental Variables, Seasonality Climate Freshwater Discharges Major Coastal and Shallow Habitats Coral Reefs Mangroves and Estuaries Wetlands Offshore Systems Climate Change Impacts Projected Impacts National Climate Change Plans, Strategies, and Programs Sea-Level Rise Human Populations Affecting the Area Major Economic Trends in Nicaragua Rural Factors Seaports and Shipping Resources Fishery Industry Overview Shrimp Aquaculture Shrimp (Wild Caught) Fish Lobster Conch and Cockles Oil and Gas, Minerals Tourism Threats to Sustainable Use of Resources Productivity Management Regimes Protected Areas Protected Species Summary, Prognosis, and Needs Acknowledgment References Further Reading 33. The Northern Argentine Sea The Defined Region Natural Environmental Variables, Seasonality Average Climatic Trends Nutrient and Chemical Environment Major Coastal and Shallow Habitats Coastal Area of Buenos Aires Province Coastal Areas of SMG Offshore Systems The SMG Climate Change Impacts Human Populations Affecting the Area Impact of Urbanization and Activities Resources Artisanal and Industrial Fisheries General Overview of the Fisheries of the Southwestern Atlantic Ocean Types of fisheries between 35°S and 42°S Processing and Commerce of Fisheries Products Factors Contributing to Unsustainability Mariculture Biogeographical Features and Management Regimes Summary References Further Reading References References 34. Southern Argentina: The Patagonian Continental Shelf The Defined Region Geological Description Physical Oceanography Natural Environmental Variables and Seasonality Climate Freshwater Discharges Major Coastal and Shallow Habitats Coastlines in Constant Change: Soft Bottom Intertidal Habitats and Beaches Salt Marshes Rocky Shores Patagonian Intertidal “Eco-Piles” Offshore Systems Pelagic and Benthic Habitats Climate Change Impacts Human Populations Affecting the Area Cities and People, Development, Economics, and Changes Land-Based Pollution Marine-Based Pollution Pollutants Hydrocarbons Pesticides and Other Persistent Organic Pollutants Metals Organotins Other Environmental Risks Biotoxins Coastal Erosion Dust Resources Fisheries: Industrial, Semi-Industrial, and Artisanal Industrial Fishery Semi-Industrial and Artisanal Fisheries Threats to Sustainable Use of Fishery Resources Measures for Fisheries Conservations Aquaculture Enabling Environments: Features and Potential Oil and Gas, Minerals Metallic Minerals Industrial Minerals Oil and Gas Tourism Management Regimes Summary References 35. The Coral Reef Province of Brazil Introduction Sedimentary Facies Physical Environment The Reef System History of Research on Coral Reefs in Brazil Major Reef Regions Geological Evolution of the Reefs Major Reef Builders Other Ecosystems Mangroves Seagrasses Climate Changes Impacts Temperature Warming and Coral Bleaching Sea-Level Rise Effects of the Human Population Coastal Runoff and Urban Development Marine Tourism and Overexploitation of Organisms Fisheries, Artisanal, and Industrial Protection and Management Acknowledgments References Further Reading 36. Nigerian Coastal Environments The Geology and Geomorphology of the Nigerian Coastal Zone The Evolution of the Coastal Geomorphic Features The Barrier-Lagoon Coastal Complex The Mahin Transgressive Mud Coast The Arcuate Delta The Strand Coast The Physical Oceanography of the Nigerian Coastline Tides Waves Longshore Drift Coastal Upwelling in the Gulf of Guinea Natural Environmental Variables, Seasonality Climate Rainfall Temperature Tidal and Freshwater Discharges Major Coastal and Shallow Habitats Mangroves Estuaries Soft Substrate Habitats and Tidal Flats Offshore Systems Pelagic and Benthic, Seamounts Climate Change Impacts Introduction Temperature Increase and Coastal Erosion Human Populations Affecting the Area Cities and People, Development, Economics, and Change Land-Based Pollution Marine-Based Pollution Rural Factors Coastal Erosion, Landfilling, and Mining Forest Clearance Pollutants (Pesticides, Nutrients, Heavy Metals, and Radioactivity) Pollution Hotspot Resources Fisheries, Artisanal, and Industrial Aquaculture Oil and Mineral Resources Tourism Threats to Sustainable Use of Resources Diversity Changes Productivity Changes Management Regimes Protection and Conservation Measures, Legal Protective Instruments Human Health, Welfare, and Resource Shortage Issues Protected Species, Habitat, and Areas Deficiencies and Missing Measures Summary, Prognosis, or Needs References Further Reading 37. The Senegalese Coastal and Marine Environment The Defined Region Coastal and Marine Habitats Coastal and Marine Environment Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Fisheries Resources Fisheries Exploitation Aquaculture Access to Fishery Resources Climate Change Human Population Affecting the Coastal and Marine Ecosystems and Biodiversity Coastal Erosion, Coastal Flooding, Soil and Water Salinization Marine Pollution Mangrove Degradation Impacts of Fisheries Management Regimes References Index A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z