Women in India: A Social and Cultural History, Volume 1

Are Indian women powerful mother goddesses, or domestic handmaidens trailing behind men in literacy, wages, opportunities, and rights? Have they been agents of their own destinies, or voiceless victims of patriarchy? Behind these colorful over-simplifications lies the reality of many feminine personas belonging to various classes, ethnicities, religions, and castes. This two-volume set looks at Indian history from ancient to modern times, revealing precisely why ideas of gender rights were not static across eras or regions. Raman's work is a reflection on the various ways in which women in a non-Western culture have developed and expressed their own feminist agenda. Individual chapters highlight the enduring legacies of many important male and female figures, illustrating how each played a key role in modifying the substance of women's lives. Political movements are examined as well, such as the nationalist reform movement of 1947 in which the ideal of Indian womanhood became central to the nation and the push for independence. Also included is a survey of women in contemporary India and the role they played in the resurgence of militant Hindu nationalism. Aside from being an engaging and readable narrative of Indian history, this set integrates women's issues, roles, and achievements into the general study of the times, providing a clear presentation of the social, cultural, religious, political, and economic realities that have helped shape the identity of Indian women. Praeger COVER 1 COPYRIGHT 5 CONTENTS 8 PREFACE 10 INTRODUCTION 12 TEXT, CONTEXT, AND RE-CREATED TEXTS 12 Exotic, Colonial Accounts of Sexual Mores 14 SHAKTI, SAINT, OR SLAVE? 17 OUTLINE OF CHAPTERS 18 NOTES 19 ABBREVIATIONS 22 1. REGION, ENVIRONMENT, GENDER 24 INDIA: ECOLOGY AND GENDER 24 EARLY HISTORY 26 Prehistory: Migration, Sexuality, and Goddesses 26 Indus Civilization and Its Legacies 26 Goddess Figurines 27 SOCIAL MATRIX 29 Adivasis 32 Folk Religion and Gender 32 Gender in Adivasi Societies 34 Dravidian Legacies 38 Indo-Aryan or Sanskritic Legacies 40 NOTES 40 2. VEDIC GODDESSES AND WOMEN 46 INDO-ARYANS: LANGUAGE, ETHNICITY, AND GENDER 46 VEDAS: TEXT AND CONTEXT 47 Knowledge as Salvation and Power 47 Varna and Patriarchy 47 RELIGION AND SOCIETY (1700–1000 BCE) 50 Goddesses 50 Sexuality and Marriage 55 Spiritualism and Yogic Ideals 60 NOTES 63 3. MOTHERS AND WIVES IN THE SMRITI TEXTS 68 SMRITI TEXTS (1000 BCE–600 CE) 68 Historical Context 69 LATER VEDIC ERA SMRITIS (CA. 1000–300 BCE) 70 Epic, Women, and Caste 70 Aims, Life Stages, and Gender Roles 71 Education and the Celibate Student 72 Artha and Kama 73 Noble Mothers in the Epics 74 Polygamy, Polyandry, and Patriliny 75 Monogamy and Love Legends 77 Chaste Wife: Sita 77 Savitri and Damayanti 78 Polyandry, Premarital Sex, Widows, and Sati 79 Bhagavad Gita, Dharma, and Women’s Puja 80 Forest Dweller and Hermit: Moksha 81 Women and Property in the Smritis 81 CLASSICAL ERA SMRITI (250 BCE–500 CE) 82 Women’s Property Rights in the Smritis 82 Trade, Ethnic Mergers, and Women 84 Shastras: Women’s Rights 85 Puranas and Classical Hinduism 87 Devi the Mother Goddess 88 Courtesans and Prostitutes 89 Royal Marriage Treaties 90 NOTES 91 4. BUDDHIST AND JAINA NUNS AND LAYWOMEN 98 DISSENT IN EARLY INDIA: BUDDHISM AND JAINISM 98 Homelessness, Celibacy, and Gender 99 Scriptures and Women’s Hymns 101 Gender and Salvation 102 JAINISM AND WOMEN 103 Female Preceptors, Doctrines, and Salvation 104 Jina Malli and Female Salvation 106 Jaina Nuns and Laywomen 108 Jaina Puja and Goddesses 108 BUDDHISM AND WOMEN 109 Buddha and Theravada 109 Maha-Pajapati’s Quest 111 Mahayana 116 Bodhisattvas: Male and Female 117 CONCLUSION 119 NOTES 120 5. WOMEN IN CLASSICAL ART AND LITERATURE 126 MAKING OF INDIA: 300 BCE–600 CE 126 FEMALE IMAGES IN BUDDHISM 127 Yakshis 127 Devis and Bhakti-Puja 129 Women Devotees, Trees, and Stupas 129 Buddhist Women Donors 130 Inscriptions 130 Images 132 Ajanta: Feminine and Masculine Ideals 133 A Case for the Woman Artisan 133 TAMIL-DRAVIDIAN TRADITIONS 134 Sangam Era Women 134 Tamil Epics: Woman Empowered, yet Contained 137 Jainism and Gender in South India 138 CLASSICAL SANSKRIT LITERATURE 139 Apsaras and Mithuna 139 Sex and Separation: Female and Male Views 141 CONCLUSION 144 NOTES 144 6. THE DIVINE FEMININE: DEVIS, YOGINIS, TARAS 150 HINDUISM 150 Early Goddess Icons and Yoni 150 Hinduism: Female, Male, Neuter, and Androgyne 152 Purusha and Prakriti 152 Hindu Trinity 153 DEVI TRADITIONS 154 Vedic Era Hymns 155 Classical and Medieval Hymns 156 Devi Mahatmya 156 Lalita Sahasranama and Saundarya Lahari 157 Tamil Male Bhakti Saints and Shiva-Shakti 159 Devi Icons 160 Classical Era 160 Medieval Images of Devi 161 Tantric Traditions 163 Women’s Rites 166 JAINISM: DEVI TRADITIONS 167 Icons of Saints and Devis 167 VAJRAYANA (TANTRIC) BUDDHISM 168 Women Siddhas and Yoginis 168 Taras and Female Bodhisattvas 169 NOTES 172 7. QUEENS, SAINTS, COURTESANS 178 ROYAL DHARMA, GENDER, AND CASTE (SEVENTH TO EIGHTEENTH CENTURY) 178 WOMEN IN SOCIETY 179 Clothing 179 Living Spaces 181 Hindu Ranis 182 Regents and Administrators 182 Property and Philanthropy 185 Women, War, and Sati 186 Sati: Early Inscriptions 186 Dravidian Tamil Texts: Widows and Death 187 Epics and Puranas: Fire Ordeals 188 Sati Stones and Group Identity in North India 189 Sati in South India 190 WOMEN’S SECULAR WRITINGS 191 WOMEN, BHAKTI, AND CASTE 192 Tamil Bhakti 193 Saguni and Nirguni Bhakti in India 194 Women’s Ramayanas and Sitayanas 195 Atukuri Molla (Telugu) 195 Chandrabati (Bengali) 195 Oral Ramayanas and Sitayanas 196 Some Famous Women Saints 196 Karaikkal Ammaiyar (Tamil) 198 Andal (Tamil) 199 Akkamahadevi and Virashaiva Sect (Kannada) 201 Varkari Women Saints (Marathi) 203 Lalla (Kashmiri) 207 Mirabai (Rajasthani, Gujarati, and Hindi) 208 COURTESANS AND PHILANTHROPIC TEMPLE WOMEN 210 Classical India 210 Temple Devadasi/Teyvadiyal (Eighth to Fourteenth Century) 211 NOTES 212 BIBLIOGRAPHY 220 PRIMARY 220 SECONDARY 223 INDEX 236 ABOUT THE AUTHOR 240 9780313377105,0313377103 Are Indian Women Powerful Mother Goddesses, Or Domestic Handmaidens Trailing Behind Men In Literacy, Wages, Opportunities, And Rights? Have They Been Agents Of Their Own Destinies, Or Voiceless Victims Of Patriarchy? Behind These Coloful Over-simplifications Lies The Reality Of Many Feminine Personas Belonging To Various Classes, Ethnicities, Religions, And Castes. This Two-volume Set Looks At Indian History From Ancient To Modern Times, Revealing Precisely Why Ideas Of Gender Rights Were Not Static Across Eras Or Regions. Raman's Work Is A Reflection On The Various Ways In Which Women In A Non-western Culture Have Developed And Expressed Their Own Feminist Agenda. Individual Chapters Highlight The Enduring Legacies Of Many Important Male And Female Figures, Illustrating How Each Played A Key Role In Modifying The Substance Of Women's Lives. Political Movements Are Examined As Well, Such As The Nationalist Reform Movement Of 1947 In Which The Ideal Of Indian Womanhood Became Central To The Nation And The Push For Independence. Also Included Is A Survey Of Women In Contemporary India And The Role They Played In The Resurgence Of Militant Hindu Nationalism. Aside From Being An Engaging And Readable Narrative Of Indian History, This Set Integrates Women's Issues, Roles, And Achievements Into The General Study Of The Times, Providing A Clear Presentation Of The Social, Cultural, Religious, Political, And Economic Realities That Have Helped Shape The Identity Of Indian Women.--publisher's Description. V. 1. Early India. Region, Environment, Gender ; Vedic Goddesses And Women ; Mothers And Wives In The Smriti Texts ; Buddhist And Jaina Nuns And Laywomen ; Women In Classical Art And Literature ; The Divine Feminine : Devis, Yoginis, Taras ; Queens, Saints, Courtesans -- V. 2. Later India. Muslim Women In Premodern India ; Women In The Colonial Era ; Male Reformers And Women's Rights ; Feminists And Nationalists ; Conclusion : Women In India Today. Sita Anantha Raman. Includes Bibliographical References And Index.