Women and the Lebanese Civil War : Female Fighters in Lebanese and Palestinian Militias

This book analyses the reasons for women's participation in the various Lebanese and Palestinian militias involved in the Lebanese Civil War (1975-1990). Whilst most existing accounts of the Civil War in Lebanon either overlook the roles and experiences of women entirely or focus on women as victims or peacemakers only, 'Women and the Lebanese Civil War' highlights that women were involved as militants (and often also as fighters) in all of the militias partaking in the war. Analysing individual motivations, organisational characteristics, security-related aspects and societal factors, the book explains why women were included as fighters in some of the militias but not in others. Based on extensive fieldwork in Lebanon, the book is the first comprehensive study of female perpetrators and supporters of political violence during the Lebanese Civil War. Beyond the case of Lebanon, it questions widespread assumptions about the roles of women at times of violent conflict and war. Dr Jennifer Philippa Eggert is an academic, NGO researcher and practitioner. Her work focuses on violent conflict, development and migration, with a focus on gender, faith and local actors. She has worked in Europe, the Middle East, South Asia and the USA Foreword Acknowledgements Praise for Women and the Lebanese Civil War Contents Abbreviations 1 Women, War and Political Violence 1.1 Existing Research on Female Fighters 1.2 Research Question and Aims 1.3 Methodological Approach 1.4 Findings 1.4.1 Numbers, Percentages and Roles of Women in the Militias 1.4.2 Individual Motivations: Women’s Insistence to be Included 1.4.3 Organisational Characteristics 1.4.4 The Security Context 1.4.5 Societal Factors 1.5 Civil War(s) in Lebanon 1.5.1 Causes of the War 1.5.2 Key Non-State Armed Political Actors 1.5.3 Phases of the War 1.5.3.1 Phase 1: Spring 1975 to Summer/Autumn 1976 1.5.3.2 Phase 2: Early 1977 to Summer 1982 1.5.3.3 Phase 3: Summer 1982 to Spring 1985 1.5.3.4 Phase 4: June 1985 to Autumn 1990 1.6 Structure of the Book Bibliography 2 Researching Non-state Political Violence 2.1 Understanding Involvement in Political Violence 2.1.1 Structure or Agency 2.1.2 Psychological Approaches and Rational Perspectives 2.1.3 Greed or Grievances? 2.1.4 Context-Based Theories and Process-Focused Explanations 2.1.5 Summary 2.2 Explaining Organisational Decision-Making 2.2.1 Applying Organisational Theory to the Study of Non-State Armed Actors 2.2.2 Studying Non-State Armed Groups as Rational Actors 2.2.3 Organisations Matter 2.2.4 A Multi-Level Approach to the Study of Organisational Decision-Making 2.2.5 Summary 2.3 Conducting Field Research on Non-State Political Violence 2.3.1 A Case for Qualitative Research on Non-State Political Violence 2.3.2 Research Context 2.3.3 Research Methods 2.3.4 Sampling and Access Issues 2.3.5 Research Ethics 2.3.6 Researcher Reflexivity 2.4 Conclusion Bibliography 3 Individual Motivations 3.1 Choice or Coercion? 3.2 Individual Backgrounds 3.3 Gender-Specific Motivations? 3.4 The Influence of the Security Context and Perceived Injustice on Individual Motivations 3.5 The Influence of Organisational Characteristics on Individual Motivations 3.6 The Influence of Societal Aspects on Individual Motivations 3.7 Conclusion Bibliography 4 Organisational Characteristics 4.1 Ideology 4.2 Internal Structure and Processes 4.3 External Influence 4.4 Age and Size 4.5 Aims 4.6 Conclusion Bibliography 5 Security Context 5.1 Threat Perception 5.2 Seeking Attention 5.3 Asserting a Position 5.4 Avoiding Detection 5.5 Conclusion Bibliography 6 Societal Factors 6.1 Facilitating Factors 6.1.1 Societal Approval 6.1.2 Societal Changes 6.1.3 Female Participation in Political Parties 6.1.4 Loosening of Gender Norms Amplified by War 6.2 Inhibiting Factors 6.2.1 Conservative Gender Norms and Expectations 6.2.2 Women’s Non-Violent Roles in the Militias and Political Parties 6.2.3 Fear of Sexual Violence 6.3 Inter-Community and Intra-Community Variation 6.3.1 Local Differences 6.3.2 Religious Differences 6.3.3 The Role of Class and Education 6.4 Managing Societal Expectations 6.4.1 Risk-Awareness 6.4.2 Practical Steps 6.4.3 Narrative Approaches 6.4.4 Role-Models 6.5 Conclusion Bibliography 7 Conclusion: Female Fighters in the Lebanese Civil War and Beyond 7.1 Summary of Findings 7.1.1 Individual Motivations: Women’s Insistence to be Included 7.1.2 Organisational Characteristics 7.1.3 The Security Context 7.1.4 Societal Factors 7.2 Discussion of Findings and Contribution to Existing Literature 7.2.1 Women and the War in Lebanon 7.2.2 Understanding Political Violence 7.2.3 Understanding Individual Motivations 7.2.4 Understanding Organisational Characteristics 7.2.5 Understanding the Security Context 7.2.6 Understanding Societal Factors 7.3 Limitations of This Study 7.4 Implications for Practice and Policy 7.5 Epilogue: Post-War Perspectives Bibliography Appendix List of Major Militias, Parties and Alliances Interview Guide: Summer 2015 Interview Guide: Winter 2015/2016 List of Interviewees Index