Wireless Sensor Networks for Tactical Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance (T-ISR)

This comprehensive resource demonstrates how wireless sensor network (WSN) systems, a key element of the Internet of Things (IoT), are designed and evaluated to solve problems associated with autonomous sensing systems. Functional blocks that form WSN-based systems are described, chapter by chapter, providing the reader with a progressive learning path through all aspects of designing remote sensing capabilities using a WSN-based system. The development and a full description of fundamental performance equations and technological solutions required by these real-time systems are included. This book explores the objectives and goals associated with tactical intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (T-ISR) missions. Readers gain insight into the correlation between fine-grained sensor resolution associated with WSN-based system complexities and the difficult requirements associated with T-ISR missions. The book demonstrates how to wield emergent technologies to arrive at reliable and robust wireless networking for T-ISR and associated tasks using low-cost, low-power persistent sensor nodes. WSN is broken down into constituent subsystems, key components, functional descriptions, and attendant mathematical descriptions. This resource explains how the design of each element can be approached and successfully integrated into a viable and responsive sensor system that is autonomous, adaptable to mission objectives and environments, and deployable worldwide. It also provides examples of what not to do based on lessons learned from past (and current) systems that failed to provide end users with the required information. Chapters are linked together, in order of system assembly (concepts to operation), to provide the reader with a full toolset that can help deliver versatility in design decisions, solutions, and understanding of such systems, end to end. Artech House Intelligence and Information Operations Series Designing Wireless Sensor Network Solutions for Tactical ISR 2 Contents 8 Preface 16 References 19 1 T-ISR Sensor Systems: Background and Overview 20 1.1 T-ISR Challenge: Sensor System Data Volume 22 1.2 T-ISR Network Sensor Predecessor: Unattended Ground Sensor 24 1.3 T-ISR System Data Processing Flow 26 1.4 ISR Overview: The Strategic, Operational, and Tactical ISR Levels 27 1.5 Confluence of Enabling Technologies for WSN 31 1.5.1 Packet-Switched Digital Networks 32 1.5.2 MEMS 34 1.5.3 The Worldwide Grid and DoDIN 34 1.5.4 VLSI 35 1.5.5 Embedded Real-Time Coding (Middleware) 36 1.5.6 Portable Power Source and Generation 36 1.5.7 Technology Confluence: WSN Research and Development 37 References 38 2 Designing a T-ISR System 42 2.1 ISR Definitions 43 2.2 T-ISR Objectives 44 2.3 ISR Reach: Worldwide Versus Localized 50 2.4 Leveraging Target Characterization: Signature Extraction 51 2.5 Target Identification Against Operational Backgrounds 53 2.6 T-ISR System Data Product Formation 54 2.7 T-ISR Data Product Dissemination 55 2.8 T-ISR System Engineering 55 2.9 Monitoring Development and Testing Progress 57 2.10 Downstream Use of ISR Data 58 References 59 3 The WSN as a T-ISR System 62 3.1 WSN Node 64 3.2 WSN Node (Mote) Functions 65 3.3 WSN Mote Subsystems and Examples 65 3.3.1 WSN Microcontroller 69 3.3.2 Mote-Based Data Acquisition 75 3.3.3 RF Transceivers 84 3.3.4 Mote-Based Sensor Modalities 87 3.4 Adapting WSN Functionality to Address T-ISR Missions 89 3.4.1 Predeployment Considerations 91 3.4.2 Network Management System 92 3.4.3 Sensor Signal Processing 93 3.4.4 Data/Status Communications 93 3.4.5 Power Management 94 3.4.6 Standardization and Legacy 94 3.4.7 Physical Attributes 95 3.5 Cooperative (Tiered) Architecture 95 References 96 Selected Bibliography 99 4 Ad Hoc Network Technology 102 4.1 Overview: Packet Switching 104 4.1.1 Flow Control 105 4.1.2 Congestion Control 107 4.1.3 Error Control 109 4.2 Basic Network Modeling Using the Poisson Distribution 112 4.3 Standards: The OSI Reference Model 114 4.4 Implementation Standards: TCP/IP Packet Model 116 4.5 Ad Hoc Wireless Networks Standards: Cross-Layer Model 119 4.6 Ad Hoc Network Architectures 120 4.7 MANET Background 123 4.8 MANET Overview 124 4.9 Routing Protocol Classification 125 4.10 WSN and MANET Comparison 128 4.10.1 WSN-MANET Commonalities 129 4.10.2 WSN-MANET Differences 129 4.10.3 WSN-MANET Convergence 130 4.11 MANET Challenges: Issues and Vulnerabilities 133 4.12 MANET Susceptibility and Attack Schema 134 4.12.1 Black Hole Attack 134 4.12.2 Active Attack 135 4.12.3 Flooding Attack 135 4.12.4 Wormhole Attack 135 4.12.5 Gray-Hole Attack 135 4.12.6 Link Spoofing Attack 136 4.12.7 SYN Flooding Attack 136 4.12.8 Session Hijacking 136 References 137 5 Basis of WSN System Performance: Theory and Application 142 5.1 Evaluation of System-Level Development 143 5.2 Developing the Baseline T-ISR System Design 144 5.3 System Engineering and Design Technical Performance 146 5.4 Identifying Technical and Key Performance Parameters 146 5.5 System and Subsystem Objectives 149 5.6 Target/Signal Detection Theory 152 5.6.1 Detection via Conditional Probability Distributions 153 5.6.2 Gaussian Noise Characterization 157 5.6.3 Poisson Noise Characterization 159 5.7 Downstream Sensor Functions 164 References 164 6 WSN Wireless Connectivity Design and Performance 168 6.1 WSN Link Performance: Overview of Propagation Models 169 6.2 Propagation Models 171 6.2.1 Basic Propagation Model, Free Space (Friis Equation) 172 6.2.2 Multipath-Induced Signal Fading 174 6.2.3 Near-Ground Consideration: Two-Ray Fading Model 175 6.2.4 Near-Ground + Obstructions: Lognormal Shadowing Model 177 6.2.5 Rayleigh Fading Model 178 6.2.6 Rician Fading Model 180 6.2.7 TWDP Fading Model 180 6.2.8 Selective Frequency Fading 182 6.2.9 Mobility-Induced Selective Frequency Fading 185 6.2.10 Additional RF Path Loss Models 187 6.3 WSN Transceiver Characteristics 187 6.3.1 Transceiver Performance 188 6.3.2 Signal Loss Mechanisms and Noise Sources 192 6.3.3 Quadrature Sampling Advantages 193 6.4 Overall RF Transceiver Performance 194 6.4.1 Minimum Received Power (SNR) 195 6.4.2 RSSI 195 6.4.3 Packet Loss Indication 197 6.4.4 Monitoring of BER 197 6.5 External RF Connectivity 197 References 200 Selected Bibliography 202 7 Localization 204 7.1 Geolocation (Navigation Satellite Constellations) 207 7.2 GPS Overview 208 7.2.1 GPS Codes 209 7.2.2 GPS (GNSS) Chipsets for WSN 210 7.2.3 GPS Chipset Performance 212 7.3 Range-Based Transference 217 7.3.1 RSSI Approach 217 7.3.2 TOA Approach 218 7.3.3 Angle of Arrival 223 7.3.4 Distance-Vector Hop Count 225 7.4 Special Localization: Walking GPS 226 References 228 8 WSN Middleware-Based Functions 232 8.1 WSN Foundation: Middleware, Services, and Resources 233 8.2 WSN Middleware Virtualization 234 8.3 WSN Middleware-Enabled Capabilities 234 8.4 Persistent Monitoring 237 8.5 WSN Functional Requirements 237 8.5.1 Detection Function 238 8.5.2 Tracking Function 243 8.5.3 Discrimination/Classification Functions 247 8.5.4 Identification 248 8.6 Power Management 250 8.6.1 MAC Consideration 251 8.6.2 Low-Power Microcontroller Solutions 253 8.6.3 Power Source: Battery Source 254 8.6.4 Power Source: Energy-Harvesting 255 8.7 Reliability 255 8.7.1 Reliable Transport Design 256 8.7.2 Reliable Code Propagation 256 8.8 Security 260 8.8.1 Cryptographic Key Management 260 8.8.2 Cryptocoprocessor 261 8.8.3 LPI and LPD 261 8.8.4 Command Authenticity 261 References 262 9 WSN Sensor Modalities 266 9.1 Sensor Operational Considerations 268 9.2 Passive Optical Sensor Modalities 270 9.2.1 PIR 271 9.2.2 Passive Imaging Sensors 276 9.2.3 Thermal Imaging for WSN 287 9.2.4 Visible Imaging (Camera) for WSN 288 9.3 Active Optical Sensor: MLR 290 9.4 Seismic Sensors 294 9.5 Acoustic Sensors 295 9.6 Magnetometers 296 9.7 Chemical-Biological Sensors 299 References 299 10 WSN System Deployment and Integration 304 10.1 Deployment Considerations 305 10.1.1 Mission Objectives 306 10.1.2 Proximity to Human Activities 307 10.1.3 Terrain Considerations 308 10.1.4 Weather/Climate 308 10.2 Deployment Planning Approach and Tools 310 10.3 Deployment Configuration (AOI Coverage) 310 10.4 Deployment Mechanisms 313 10.5 WSN System Integration 314 10.5.1 Open Geospatial Consortium 315 10.5.2 IEEE 1451: Smart Transducer Interface Standards 318 10.6 User Integration 319 10.6.1 Legacy Integration 319 10.6.2 C2PC Common Operating Picture 321 10.6.3 FalconView 322 10.6.4 Cursor-on-Target 323 References 324 11 WSN Application to T-ISR 328 11.1 Conceptualizing the Use of WSN for Military Applications 329 11.2 I&T of WSN Systems 331 11.2.1 DARPA Smart Dust: The 29-Palms Demonstrations 331 11.2.2 DARPA: A Line in the Sand Demonstrations 332 11.3 Integration of WSN with Sensor Web Services 351 11.3.1 Semantic Sensor Web 352 11.3.2 DHS (Customs and Border Patrol) Cueing Demonstration 352 11.4 WSN as IoBT 353 11.5 Examples of Ongoing DoD Activities 355 References 355 About the Author 360 Index 362 Wireless,sensors;,Networks;,Tactical,ISR;,978-1-63081-337-6;,Artech,House Wireless sensors,Networks,Tactical ISR,978-1-63081-337-6,Artech House