Why Are All the Black Kids Sitting Together in the Cafeteria (And Other Conversations About Race)

ESSENTIALS OF METEOROLOGY: AN INVITATION TO THE ATMOSPHERE, 8th Edition, is written by the most widely read and authoritative author in introductory meteorology, Donald Ahrens, together with a new coauthor -- meteorologist and award-winning science writer Robert Henson. Their ability to explain relatively complicated ideas in a student-friendly way allows both science and nonscience majors to visualize the principles of meteorology. The text's clear and inviting narrative is supplemented by pedagogical features that encourage observing, calculating, and synthesizing information, and recent weather and climate events are incorporated to enhance student interest. Important Notice: Media content referenced within the product description or the product text may not be available in the ebook version. Cover 1 Contents in Brief 7 Contents 8 Preface 17 Chapter 1: Earth’s Atmosphere 25 The Atmosphere And The Scientific Method 26 Weather, Climate, And Meteorology 27 Meteorology—the Study Of The Atmosphere 27 A Satellite’s View Of The Weather 29 Storms Of All Sizes 29 A Glimpse At A Weather Map 29 Weather And Climate In Our Lives 31 What Is A Meteorologist? 36 Components Of Earth’s Atmosphere 37 The Early Atmosphere 37 Composition Of Today’s Atmosphere 37 Vertical Structure Of The Atmosphere 41 A Brief Look At Air Pressure And Air Density 41 Layers Of The Atmosphere 43 The Radiosonde 44 Summary 46 Key Terms 46 Questions for Review 46 Questions for Thought and Exploration 47 Chapter 2: Warming And Cooling Earth And Its Atmosphere 49 Temperature And Heat Transfer 50 Temperature Scales 50 Latent Heat—the Hidden Warmth 51 Conduction 53 Convection 53 Rising Air Cools And Sinking Air Warms 54 Radiant Energy 55 Sunburning And Uv Rays 57 Radiation—Absorption, Emission, And Equilibrium 58 Selective Absorbers And The Atmospheric Greenhouse Effect 59 Enhancement Of The Greenhouse Effect 60 Warming The Air From Below 62 Shortwave Radiation Streaming From The Sun 63 Earth’s Annual Energy Balance 64 Space Weather And Its Impact On Earth 66 Why Earth Has Seasons 66 Seasons In The Northern Hemisphere 68 Is December 21 Really The First Day Of Winter? 71 Seasons In The Southern Hemisphere 72 Local Seasonal Variations 73 Summary 74 Key Terms 74 Questions for Review 74 Questions for Thought and Exploration 75 Chapter 3: Air Temperature 77 Daily Warming And Cooling Air Near The Surface 78 Daytime Warming 78 Extreme High Temperatures 79 Nighttime Cooling 81 Cold Air Near The Surface 81 Protecting Crops From The Cold Night Air 82 Extreme Low Temperatures 84 Daily Temperature Variations 85 Regional Temperature Variations 86 When It Comes To Temperature, What’s Normal? 87 Applications Of Air Temperature Data 89 Air Temperature And Human Comfort 92 A Thousand Degrees And Freezing To Death 93 Measuring Air Temperature 94 Why Thermometers Must Be Read In The Shade 96 Summary 98 Key Terms 98 Questions for Review 98 Questions for Thought and Exploration 99 Chapter 4: Humidity, Condensation, And Clouds 101 Circulation Of Water In The Atmosphere 102 Evaporation, Condensation, And Saturation 103 Humidity 104 Vapor Pressure 104 Relative Humidity 105 Relative Humidity And Dew Point 107 Relative Humidity And Human Discomfort 110 Humid Air And Dry Air Do Not Weigh The Same 112 Measuring Humidity 112 Dew And Frost 113 Fog 115 Foggy Weather 118 Fog Dispersal 119 Clouds 120 Classification Of Clouds 120 High Clouds 120 Middle Clouds 121 Low Clouds 122 Clouds With Vertical Development 124 Some Unusual Clouds 125 Clouds And Satellite Imagery 128 Summary 133 Key Terms 133 Questions for Review 133 Questions for Thought and Exploration 134 Chapter 5: Cloud Development And Precipitation 137 Atmospheric Stability 138 Determining Stability 139 A Stable Atmosphere 139 An Unstable Atmosphere 140 A Conditionally Unstable Atmosphere 142 Cloud Development And Stability 143 Convection And Clouds 143 Topography And Clouds 145 Atmospheric Stability And Windy Afternoons—Hold On To Your Hat 146 Precipitation Processes 148 Collision And Coalescence Process 148 Ice-Crystal Process 149 Cloud Seeding And Precipitation 151 Does Cloud Seeding Enhance Precipitation? 153 Precipitation In Clouds 153 Rain 154 Precipitation Types 154 Snow 155 Are Raindrops Tear-Shaped? 156 Sleet And Freezing Rain 158 Aircraft Icing 159 Snow Grains And Snow Pellets 160 Hail 160 Measuring Precipitation 162 Instruments 162 Doppler Radar And Precipitation 163 Summary 166 Key Terms 166 Questions for Review 166 Questions for Thought and Exploration 167 Chapter 6: Air Pressure And Winds 169 Atmospheric Pressure 170 Horizontal Pressure Variations—a Tale Of Two Cities 170 The Atmosphere Obeys The Gas Law 172 Measuring Air Pressure 172 Pressure Readings 174 Surface And Upper-air Charts 175 Why The Wind Blows 176 Isobaric Maps 177 Newton’s Laws Of Motion 177 Forces That Influence The Wind 178 Pressure Gradient Force 178 Coriolis Force 179 Straight-Line Flow Aloft 181 Curved Winds Around Lows And Highs Aloft 182 Estimating Wind Direction And Pressure Patterns Aloft By Watching Clouds 183 Winds On Upper-level Charts 184 Surface Winds 185 Winds Aloft In The Southern Hemisphere 186 Winds And Vertical Air Motions 186 Determining Wind Direction And Speed 187 The Influence Of Prevailing Winds 188 Wind Instruments 189 Wind Energy 191 Summary 192 Key Terms 192 Questions for Review 192 Questions for Thought and Exploration 193 Chapter 7: Atmospheric Circulations 195 Scales Of Atmospheric Motion 196 Eddies—big And Small 197 Local Wind Systems 198 Thermal Circulations 198 Eddies And “Air Pockets” 199 Sea And Land Breezes 200 Mountain And Valley Breezes 202 Katabatic Winds 202 Chinook (foehn) Winds 203 Snow Eaters And Rapid Temperature Changes 204 Santa Ana Winds 204 Desert Winds 206 Seasonally Changing Winds—the Monsoon 208 General Circulation Of The Atmosphere 210 Global Winds 210 Single-Cell Model 210 Three-Cell Model 211 Average Surface Winds And Pressure: The Real World 214 The General Circulation And Precipitation Patterns 214 Westerly Winds And The Jet Stream 216 Characteristics Of Jet Streams 216 The Formation Of Jet Streams 218 Atmosphere-Ocean Interactions 219 Global Wind Patterns And Surface Ocean Currents 219 Winds And Upwelling 220 El NiÑo, La NiÑa, And The Southern Oscillation 221 Other Atmosphere-Ocean Interactions 225 Summary 228 Key Terms 228 Questions for Review 228 Questions for Thought and Exploration 229 Chapter 8: Air Masses, Fronts, And Middle-Latitude Cyclones 231 Air Masses 232 Classification 233 Air Masses Of North America 233 Continental Polar (cP) And Continental Arctic (cA) Air Masses 234 Lake-Effect (Enhanced) Snows 235 The Return Of The Siberian Express 237 Maritime Polar (mP) Air Masses 238 Maritime Tropical (mT) Air Masses 239 Continental Tropical (cT) Air Masses 241 Fronts 242 Stationary Fronts 243 Cold Fronts 244 Warm Fronts 246 Drylines 248 Occluded Fronts 249 Polar Front Theory 251 Mid-Latitude Cyclonic Storms 251 Where Do Mid-Latitude Cyclones Tend To Form? 253 Developing Mid-Latitude Cyclones And Anticyclones 254 Nor’easters 255 The Role Of Converging And Diverging Air 255 A Closer Look At Convergence And Divergence 256 Waves In The Westerlies 257 Upper-Air Support For The Developing Storm 257 The Role Of The Jet Stream 259 Summary 261 Key Terms 261 Questions for Review 261 Questions for Thought and Exploration 262 Chapter 9: Weather Forecasting 265 Acquisition Of Weather Information 266 Weather Observations 266 Weather Forecasting Tools 267 TV Weathercasters—How Do They Do It? 268 Weather Forecasting Methods 269 The Computer And Weather Forecasting: Numerical Weather Prediction 269 Why Computer-Based Forecasts Can Go Awry And Steps To Improve Them 271 Grid Spacing 271 Ensemble Forecasts 273 Other Forecasting Techniques 274 Time Range Of Forecasts 277 Weather Prediction And The Marketplace 279 Accuracy And Skill In Weather Forecasting 279 Determining The Movement Of Weather Systems 281 Weather Forecasting Using Surface Charts 281 A Forecast For Six Cities 281 Weather Forecast For Augusta, Georgia 283 Rain Or Snow For Washington, D.C.? 284 Mixed Bag Of Weather For Memphis 284 Big Snowstorm For Chicago 284 Clear But Cold For Denver 285 Cold Wave For Dallas 285 Using Forecasting Tools To Predict The Weather 286 Help From The 500-mb Chart 286 The Models Provide Assistance 288 Satellite And Upper-air Assistance 289 A Valid Forecast 289 A Day Of Rain And Wind 290 Summary 292 Key Terms 292 Questions for Review 292 Questions for Thought and Exploration 293 Chapter 10: Thunderstorms And Tornadoes 295 Thunderstorms 296 Ordinary Cell Thunderstorms 297 Multicell Thunderstorms 299 The Gust Front 300 Microbursts 301 Squall-Line Thunderstorms 302 Supercell Thunderstorms 304 Mesoscale Convective Complexes 304 Thunderstorms And Flooding 308 The Terrifying Flash Flood In The Big Thompson Canyon 309 Distribution Of Thunderstorms 310 Thunderstorms And The Dryline 312 Lightning And Thunder 312 How Far Away Is The Lightning?—Start Counting 312 Electrification Of Clouds 313 The Lightning Stroke 314 Types Of Lightning 316 Lightning Detection And Suppression 317 Tornadoes 318 Don’t Sit Under The Apple Tree 319 Tornado Life Cycle 319 Tornado Occurrence And Distribution 320 Tornado Winds 322 Seeking Shelter 322 The Weird World Of Tornado Damage 324 The Enhanced Fujita Scale 324 The Evolution Of Tornado Watches And Warnings 326 Tornado Outbreaks 327 Tornado Formation 327 Supercell Tornadoes 327 Nonsupercell Tornadoes 331 Waterspouts 332 Observing Tornadoes And Severe Weather 333 Storm Chasing And Mobile Radar 336 Summary 337 Key Terms 337 Questions for Review 337 Questions for Thought and Exploration 338 Chapter 11: Hurricanes 341 Tropical Weather 342 Anatomy Of A Hurricane 342 Hurricane Formation And Dissipation 345 The Right Environment 345 The Developing Storm 346 The Storm Dies Out 347 Hurricane Stages Of Development 347 Investigating The Storm 348 Hurricane Movement 349 How Do Hurricanes Compare With Middle-Latitude Cyclones? 350 Eastern Pacific Hurricanes 352 North Atlantic Hurricanes 352 Devastating Winds, The Storm Surge, And Flooding 353 Naming Hurricanes And Tropical Storms 353 Devastation From A Tropical Storm—the Case Of Allison 356 Classifying Hurricane Strength 356 Hurricane Fatalities 358 Hurricane-Spawned Tornadoes 358 Some Notable Hurricanes 359 Galveston, 1900 359 Camille, 1969 359 New England, 1938 359 Hugo, 1989 359 Andrew, 1992 360 Katrina And Rita, 2005 361 The Record-Setting Atlantic Hurricane Seasons Of 2004 And 2005 362 Sandy, 2012 363 Devastating Tropical Cyclones Around The World 364 Hurricane Watches, And Warnings 365 Hurricanes In A Warmer World 366 Hurricane Forecasting Techniques 367 Modifying Hurricanes 369 Summary 370 Key Terms 370 Questions for Review 370 Questions for Thought and Exploration 371 Chapter 12: Global Climate 373 A World With Many Climates 374 Global Precipitation 376 Extreme Wet And Dry Regions 378 Climatic Classification— The Köppen System 379 The Global Pattern Of Climate 381 Tropical Moist Climates (Group A) 381 Dry Climates (Group B) 385 Moist Subtropical Mid-Latitude Climates (Group C) 388 A Desert With Clouds And Drizzle 389 Moist Continental Climates (Group D) 392 When Does A Dry Spell Become A Drought? 394 Polar Climates (Group E) 396 Highland Climates (Group H) 397 Are Plant Hardiness Zones Shifting Northward? 398 Summary 400 Key Terms 400 Questions for Reivew 400 Questions for Thought and Exploration 401 Chapter 13: Earth’s Changing Climate 403 Reconstructing Past Climates 404 Climate Throughout The Ages 406 Temperature Trends During The Past 1000 Years 407 The Ocean’s Influence On Rapid Climate Change 408 Temperature Trends During The Past 100-Plus Years 409 Climate Change Caused By Natural Events 410 Climate Change: Feedback Mechanisms 411 Climate Change: Plate Tectonics And Mountain Building 412 Climate Change: Variations In The Earth’s Orbit 413 Climate Change: Atmospheric Particles 416 Particles Near The Surface 416 Climate Change: Variations In Solar Output 416 Volcanic Eruptions 416 Particles In The Upper Atmosphere And Mass Extinction 418 Climate Change Caused By Human (Anthropogenic) Activities 419 Climate Change: Aerosols Injected Into The Lower Atmosphere 419 Climate Change: Greenhouse Gases 419 Nuclear Winter—Climate Change Induced By Nuclear War 420 Climate Change: Land Use Changes 420 Recent Global Warming: Perspective 421 Radiative Forcing Agents 421 Climate Change: Global Warming 421 Climate Change And Extreme Weather 422 Climate Models And Recent Temperature Trends 423 Future Climate Change: Projections 423 Uncertainties About Greenhouse Gases 425 Climate Models—a Quick Look 426 The Question Of Clouds 427 The Impact Of Ozone On The Greenhouse Effect And Climate Change 428 The Impact Of Oceans 428 Consequences Of Climate Change: The Possibilities 428 Sea Level Rise 429 Precipitation 429 Effects On Ecosystems 430 Climate Change: Efforts To Curb 430 Effects In Polar Regions 430 Diplomatic Efforts 430 Geoengineering 431 Climate Change: A Final Note 432 Summary 433 Key Terms 433 Questions for Review 433 Questions for Thought and Exploration 434 Chapter 14: Air Pollution 437 A Brief History Of Air Pollution 438 Indoor Air Pollution 440 Types And Sources Of Air Pollutants 440 Principal Air Pollutants 441 Ozone In The Stratosphere 444 Ozone In The Troposphere 444 The Formation Of Ground-Level Ozone In Polluted Air 445 The Ozone Hole 447 Air Pollution: Trends And Patterns 448 The Role Of Stability And Inversions 451 Factors That Affect Air Pollution 451 The Role Of The Wind 451 The Role Of Topography 453 Smokestack Plumes 454 Severe Air Pollution Potential 455 Air Pollution And The Urban Environment 455 Five Days In Donora—an Air Pollution Episode 456 Acid Deposition 458 Heat Waves And Air Pollution: A Deadly Team 459 Summary 461 Key Terms 461 Questions for Review 461 Questions for Thought and Exploration 462 Chapter 15: Light, Color, And Atmospheric Optics 465 Clouds And Scattered Light 466 White And Colors 466 Blue Skies And Hazy Days 467 Red Suns And Blue Moons 469 Twinkling, Twilight, And The Green Flash 471 The Mirage: Seeing Is Not Believing 473 The Fata Morgana 475 Halos, Sundogs, And Sun Pillars 475 Rainbows 478 Coronas And Cloud Iridescence 481 Glories And The Heiligenschein 482 Summary 483 Key Terms 483 Questions for Review 483 Questions for Thought 484 Appendix 485 Appendix A: Units, Conversions, Abbreviations, And Equations 485 Appendix B: Equations And Constants 488 Appendix C: Weather Symbols And The Station Model 490 Appendix D: Average Annual Global Precipitation 492 Appendix E: Köppen’s Climatic Classification System 494 Appendix F: Humidity And Dew-point Tables [psychrometric Tables] 495 Appendix G: Standard Atmosphere 499 Appendix H: Beaufort Wind Scale [over Land] 500 Additional Reading Material 501 Glossary 503 Index 518 ESSENTIALS OF METEOROLOGY, 8th Edition, is written for students interested in gaining insights into the dynamic workings of the atmosphere. The authors'ability to explain relatively complicated ideas in an easy-to-understand way lets both science and nonscience majors visualize the principles of meteorology. Online animations help you to immediately apply the text material and understand the underlying meteorological principles, and appendices allow you to explore meteorological data such as world temperature extremes and precipitation extremes over a 30-year period.