White's Handbook of Chlorination and Alternative Disinfectants

New edition covers the latest practices, regulations, and alternative disinfectants Since the publication of the Fourth Edition of White's Handbook of Chlorination and Alternative Disinfectants more than ten years ago, the water industry has made substantial advances in their understanding and application of chlorine, hypochlorite, and alternative disinfectants for water and wastewater treatment. This Fifth Edition, with its extensive updates and revisions, reflects the current state of the science as well as the latest practices. Balancing theory with practice, the Fifth Edition covers such important topics as: Advances in the use of UV and ozone as disinfectants Alternative disinfectants such as chlorine dioxide, iodine, and bromine-related products Advanced oxidation processes for drinking water and wastewater treatment New developments and information for the production and handling of chlorine Latest regulations governing the use of different disinfectants For each disinfectant, the book explains its chemistry, effectiveness, dosing, equipment, and system design requirements. Moreover, the advantages and disadvantages of each disinfectant are clearly set forth. References at the end of each chapter guide readers to the primary literature for further investigation. Authored and reviewed by leading experts in the field of water and wastewater treatment, this Fifth Edition remains an ideal reference for utilities, regulators, engineers, and plant operators who need current information on the disinfection of potable water, wastewater, industrial water, and swimming pools. WHITE’S HANDBOOK OF CHLORINATION AND ALTERNATIVE DISINFECTANTS......Page 4 CONTENTS......Page 10 Preface......Page 30 Authors......Page 32 List of Contributors and Reviewers......Page 34 List of Abbreviations......Page 36 Acknowledgments......Page 42 Chlorine Gas......Page 44 History......Page 45 Electrolytic Processes......Page 46 The Ideal Electrochemical Cell......Page 47 Membrane Cell......Page 48 Diaphragm Cells......Page 51 Mercury Cells......Page 54 Process Diagram for a Typical Chlor-Alkali Plant......Page 58 HCl Oxidation Processes......Page 61 Historical Background......Page 63 Consequences of Impurities......Page 65 Nitrogen Trichloride in Liquid Chlorine......Page 66 Critical Properties......Page 67 Compressibility Coefficient......Page 68 Volume–Temperature Relationship......Page 69 Solubility of Chlorine Gas in Water......Page 70 Solubility of Liquid Chlorine in Water......Page 71 Chemical Reactions......Page 72 Toxic Effects......Page 73 First Aid......Page 74 Intentional Release......Page 75 Definitions......Page 76 Characteristics of a Major Liquid Chlorine Release......Page 77 Vapor Release......Page 78 Guillotine Break in a Pipeline: Ton Container Supply......Page 79 A Major Leak from PVC Header Failure......Page 81 Fusible Plug Failure from Corrosion......Page 82 USEPA Risk Management Programs (RMPs)......Page 84 OSHA Process Safety Management (PSM) Regulations......Page 88 Worst-Case and Alternative Release Analyses......Page 89 Railroad Transportation......Page 90 Highway Transportation......Page 94 General......Page 95 A Fatal 1-Ton Container Leak......Page 96 A Leak from a Buried Chlorine Pipe......Page 97 A 14,000-lb Liquid Leak......Page 98 A Tank Car Leak at a Chlorine Packager......Page 100 Frequency and Magnitude of Chlorine Leaks......Page 102 End Uses of Chlorine......Page 105 Help in Chlorine Emergencies......Page 107 References......Page 108 Dissolution and Hydrolysis of Chlorine......Page 111 Effect of pH and Temperature......Page 117 Ionic Strength Effects......Page 120 Chlorine Speciation in Concentrated Solutions......Page 124 Hypochlorite Solutions......Page 125 Oxidation States of Chlorine......Page 128 Free, Combined, and Available Chlorine......Page 130 Chlorine and Nitrogenous Compounds......Page 134 Nitrogenous Compounds in Water and Wastewater......Page 135 Chlorination of Ammonia to Form Chloramines......Page 137 The Breakpoint Reaction......Page 146 The Organic Nitrogen Problem......Page 159 The Chemistry of Chlorine in Seawater......Page 165 Effect of Bromide......Page 166 Ionic Strength Effects......Page 169 Bromamine Formation and Decay......Page 170 Fundamental Considerations......Page 172 Practical Considerations......Page 176 ORP Measurements......Page 178 Practical Applications of ORP Measurements......Page 182 Reactions of Chlorine with Selected Constituents......Page 184 Alkalinity......Page 185 Carbon......Page 188 Hydrogen Sulfide......Page 189 Iron and Manganese......Page 190 Nitrite......Page 191 Chlorine Demand......Page 192 Germicidal Significance of Chlorine Residuals......Page 194 Mechanisms of Inactivation......Page 195 Hypochlorous Acid......Page 196 Hypochlorite Ion......Page 197 Chloramines......Page 198 References......Page 204 The Early Years......Page 217 Following Discovery of the Breakpoint Phenomenon......Page 218 General Considerations......Page 222 Common Interferences......Page 223 Organic Nitrogen Interference......Page 225 Recommendations for Method Selection......Page 227 Amperometric Titration......Page 230 The Single-Indicator-Electrode Titrator......Page 231 The Dual-Indicator-Electrode Titrator......Page 234 Operating Characteristics......Page 236 Chemistry of the Amperometric Method......Page 237 Preparation and Procedures for Titration......Page 238 Low-Level Amperometric Titrations......Page 243 Free Chlorine Residuals at Short Contact Times......Page 244 Determination of Residual Chlorine in Wastewater Effluents......Page 245 DPD Method......Page 251 DPD Colorimetric Method......Page 253 DPD-FAS Titrimetric Method......Page 254 FACTS (Syringaldazine) Method......Page 257 Iodometric Method I......Page 258 Iodometric Method II (Wastewater)......Page 260 Iodometric Electrode Method......Page 261 Leuco Crystal Violet (LCV) Method......Page 262 Methyl Orange (MO) Method......Page 263 Interfering Substances......Page 264 Drop Dilution Method......Page 265 References......Page 266 Groundwater......Page 273 Waterborne Diseases......Page 274 Use as a Biocide......Page 275 Use as a Virucide......Page 278 SWTR......Page 279 Interim Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule (IESWTR)......Page 281 Long-Term 2 Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule (LT2ESWTR)......Page 282 Disinfection of Drinking Water with Clorine......Page 283 Historical Background......Page 284 Points of Application......Page 285 Trihalomethanes (THMs)......Page 286 Total Organic Halides (TOX)......Page 287 Chlorine Demand......Page 288 Chlorination-Dechlorination......Page 290 Historical Background......Page 291 The Ammonia-Chlorine Process......Page 293 Operation of the Chloramination Process......Page 294 Issues of Concern......Page 296 Distribution System......Page 305 Regrowth......Page 307 Explanation of Terms Involving Regrowth......Page 309 Factors Influencing Microbial Growth......Page 312 Operation of the Distribution System......Page 314 Monitoring......Page 315 Control of Water Age......Page 317 Secondary Disinfectant Residuals......Page 318 Flushing......Page 320 Typical Disinfection Chemicals......Page 321 Disinfectant Feed Systems......Page 322 Disinfection of Water Mains......Page 323 Procedure for Disinfecting Water Treatment Plants......Page 324 Disinfection of New Buildings......Page 325 Procedure for Disinfection of Wells......Page 326 Procedures for Maintaining Disinfection while Inspecting In-Service Water Storage Facilities......Page 327 Tastes and Odors......Page 328 Tastes and Odors from Algae and Actinomycetes......Page 329 Synthetic Sources of Tastes and Odors......Page 331 Iron and Manganese......Page 332 Oxidation of Iron......Page 334 Oxidation of Manganese......Page 335 Filtration Aid......Page 336 Control of Mollusca in Seawater......Page 338 Zebra Mussels......Page 339 Quagga Mussels......Page 340 Hydrogen Sulfide Control......Page 342 Desalination......Page 346 Restoration of Wells......Page 347 Chlorination in the United Kingdom......Page 349 Disinfection of Coagulated Surface Water......Page 353 Acknowledgments......Page 354 References......Page 355 History......Page 369 Chlorine Chemistry in Wastewater......Page 370 Odor Control......Page 372 Prechlorination of Wastewater......Page 373 Scrubbing of Foul Air......Page 376 Trickling Filters......Page 381 BOD Reduction......Page 382 Control of Sludge Bulking......Page 383 Septicity Control......Page 388 Removal of Oils and Grease......Page 391 Removal of Ammonia......Page 392 Free and Combined Cyanides......Page 395 Phenols......Page 402 Textile Wastes......Page 403 References......Page 404 History......Page 406 The Coliform Standard......Page 407 Viruses......Page 411 Virus Inactivation......Page 413 Methods of Wastewater Disinfection......Page 419 Reactions with Wastewater Constituents......Page 422 Chlorine Dose and Effluent Quality......Page 425 Chlorination of Nitrified Effluents......Page 427 Formation of DBPs......Page 433 Regrowth of Organisms......Page 437 Toxicity of Chlorine Residuals......Page 438 Need for Dechlorination......Page 439 Wastewater Reuse......Page 440 References......Page 443 Introduction......Page 447 Dispersion of Chlorine......Page 448 Mixing Technologies......Page 449 Chlorine Contact Chamber Sizing......Page 454 Reuse Water......Page 456 Potable Water......Page 457 Wet Weather Disinfection for Wastewater......Page 459 References......Page 460 8 Chlorine Feed Systems......Page 461 Cylinders......Page 463 Ton Containers......Page 467 Tank Trucks/Tank Cars......Page 470 Storage Tanks......Page 473 Vaporizers......Page 474 Pressure-Reducing Valve......Page 479 Gas Filter......Page 480 Gas Chlorine Feed......Page 481 Chlorine Feeders and Eductors......Page 485 Chlorine Diffusers......Page 487 Pipe and Valve Systems......Page 488 Chlorine Scrubbers......Page 493 Reference......Page 494 Background and History of Hypochlorites......Page 495 Sodium Hypochlorite......Page 497 Concentration Properties, Feed Calculations, Codes, and Hazards......Page 498 Degradation......Page 506 Estimating the Degradation Rate......Page 508 Concentration Effects......Page 509 Temperature Effects......Page 511 pH Effects......Page 512 UV Light Effects......Page 513 Impurities......Page 514 Settled Particulates......Page 516 Sodium Carbonate......Page 517 Scaling......Page 518 Recommendations......Page 519 Tank Selection......Page 520 Lined Steel......Page 522 FRP......Page 523 HDPE......Page 524 Level Instrumentation......Page 526 Truck Unloading......Page 527 Underground Storage Tank (UST)......Page 528 Diaphragm Metering Pumps......Page 529 Problems with Vapor Locking......Page 533 Peristaltic Pumps......Page 536 Liquid Dosing Systems......Page 541 Sodium Hypochlorite Piping......Page 542 Thermoplastic Piping (PVC and CPVC)......Page 544 Lined Steel......Page 546 Titanium......Page 547 PVDF......Page 548 Gaskets, Seals, and O-Rings......Page 549 Sodium Hypochlorite Valves......Page 550 Ball Valves......Page 551 Diaphragm Valves......Page 553 Elevation Differences......Page 556 Tank and Pump Bases......Page 558 Access and Clearances......Page 560 History......Page 561 Manufacturing Process......Page 563 Disinfection......Page 564 Solubility......Page 565 Tablet and Briquette Systems......Page 566 Applicable Standards......Page 567 Lithium Hypochlorite......Page 568 References......Page 569 The Beginning......Page 571 Current Interest......Page 572 Impact of Salt Quality and Bromate Formation......Page 573 Electrolytic Formation of Sodium Hypochlorite......Page 574 Process Overview......Page 575 Water Softener......Page 577 Brine Saturator Tank......Page 580 Soft-Water Heater......Page 582 Soft-Water Chiller......Page 583 Electrolytic Cell......Page 585 Brine Dilution......Page 588 Hydrogen Formation, Separation, and Safety......Page 589 Hydrogen Dilution Blowers......Page 596 Sodium Hypochlorite Feed Equipment......Page 599 Equipment Sizing......Page 600 System Redundancy......Page 601 System Layout......Page 602 ClorTec......Page 608 Klorigen......Page 609 OSEC......Page 610 Process Solutions, Inc. (PSI)......Page 611 References......Page 614 History......Page 615 Significance of Chlorine Species......Page 619 Chemical Properties......Page 620 Dechlorination Chemistry......Page 622 Contactor Design......Page 623 Chemical Properties......Page 624 Contactor Design......Page 625 Other Dechlorination Chemicals......Page 626 Dechlorination Facility Design......Page 628 Design of Gaseous System Sulfur Dioxide......Page 629 Sulfur Dioxide Leak Detectors......Page 632 Liquid System Design for Sulfites......Page 635 References......Page 636 Introduction......Page 637 Background......Page 639 Amperometry......Page 641 Polarography......Page 642 Potentiometry......Page 643 ORP......Page 645 Colorimetry......Page 649 Online Analyzers for Chlorination......Page 650 Analytical Technology, Inc.......Page 651 Hach......Page 654 Capital Controls......Page 657 GLI International......Page 662 Orion Research, Inc.......Page 663 Wallace & Tiernan......Page 664 Stranco Products......Page 665 Field Comparison of Analyzers......Page 672 How to Select an Online Analyzer......Page 674 Online Process Control Overview......Page 676 Chlorination Process Control......Page 680 Manual Control......Page 681 Flow Pacing......Page 684 Feedback Control......Page 687 Compound Loop Control......Page 690 Dechlorination......Page 696 Compound Loop Control......Page 697 Zero Residual Control......Page 698 Stranco HRR......Page 700 Wallace & Tiernan......Page 701 Capital Controls......Page 705 Blending Chemistry with Process Control......Page 706 Control System O&M......Page 713 Record Keeping and Regulatory Issues......Page 716 References......Page 719 General......Page 721 Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs)......Page 722 Maintenance Plan......Page 723 Residual Analyzer Maintenance and Calibration of Residual Analyzer......Page 724 Operation......Page 725 Chlorine Gas System Maintenance......Page 727 Chlorine Detection Systems and Emergency Scrubber......Page 729 Sodium Hypochlorite System Operation......Page 730 Sodium Hypochlorite System Maintenance......Page 732 Sulfonator Operation......Page 733 Sulfonator Maintenance......Page 734 Operation of Liquid Dechlorination Systems......Page 735 Small (100- and 150-lb) Gas Cylinders......Page 736 Ton Containers......Page 737 Rail Cars......Page 738 Liquid Chemical Storage......Page 739 Risk Management Plan......Page 740 SDWA and State Testing and Reporting Requirements......Page 741 Wastewater Chlorine Use Reporting Requirements for Wastewater Facilities......Page 742 Historical Background......Page 743 European Practice......Page 744 Other Uses......Page 745 Chemical Properties......Page 746 Chemistry in Potable Water Treatment......Page 747 Germicidal Efficiency......Page 748 Inactivation of Viruses and Bacteria......Page 749 Encysted Parasites......Page 754 Equipment and Generation......Page 755 Commercial Generation Methods and Chemistry......Page 756 Acid–Chlorite Solution......Page 757 Chlorine Solution–Chlorite Solution......Page 760 Three-Chemical Systems (D. A. Gates, pers. comm.)......Page 761 Chlorine Gas–Chlorite Solution......Page 762 Electrochemical......Page 763 Chemical Feed Design Considerations......Page 765 Purity Specification......Page 766 Potassium Persulfate–Chlorite Solution......Page 767 Sodium Hypochlorite–Hydrochloric Acid–Chlorite Solution......Page 768 Chlorine Gas–Solid Chlorite......Page 769 Drinking Water Primary Disinfection Application Points......Page 770 Exposure to Sunlight......Page 771 Chlorite......Page 772 Chlorate......Page 774 Objectionable Taste and Odor Formation......Page 777 Combined Sewer Overflow (CSO)......Page 778 Food Processing......Page 779 Other Pathogens......Page 780 Taste and Odor Control......Page 781 Iron and Manganese Oxidation......Page 782 Analytic Methods for Chlorine Dioxide and its Oxychlorine By-Products......Page 783 Iodometry......Page 785 Standard Methods 4500-ClO(2)-C, Amperometric Method I......Page 786 Amperometric Titration Equivalence Point......Page 787 DPD Method......Page 790 LGB......Page 791 Spectrophotometry......Page 792 Flow Injection Analysis (FIA)......Page 793 Other Colorimetric Methods for Chlorine Dioxide Analysis......Page 794 Sodium Chlorite......Page 795 Workplace Monitoring......Page 796 Chlorine Dioxide Residual Limits......Page 797 Summary......Page 798 Acknowledgments......Page 799 References......Page 800 History and Application......Page 810 Solubility of Ozone......Page 811 Ozone Reaction Pathways......Page 812 Ozone Demand......Page 814 Dissolved Ozone Decay......Page 815 Iron and Manganese......Page 816 Sulfides......Page 818 Chlorine, Chlorine Dioxide, and Monochloramine......Page 819 Taste- and Odor-Causing Compounds......Page 820 Control of Chlorination By-Products......Page 822 Biological Filtration......Page 823 Removal of Particulates......Page 824 Increase in UV Transmittance at 254 nm (UVT(254))......Page 825 SOCs......Page 826 EDC and PPCP Treatment......Page 827 Cyanotoxins......Page 828 Treatment of Biological Solids in Wastewater......Page 829 Use in Drinking Water......Page 830 Use in Wastewater......Page 833 Ozone DBPs......Page 835 Bromate Control......Page 836 Use in Water and Wastewater Treatment......Page 838 Potable Water Installations......Page 839 Wastewater Installations......Page 840 Equipment and Generation......Page 841 Theory of O(3) Generation......Page 842 Gas Source......Page 843 Generation......Page 855 Transfer......Page 859 Contactors......Page 864 Destruction Equipment......Page 869 Ancillary Equipment......Page 872 Cost Studies......Page 874 Gas Flow......Page 875 Ozone Transfer Efficiency......Page 877 Specific Energy......Page 878 Analytical Methods......Page 879 Ozone Concentration in Gas......Page 880 Measuring Dissolved Ozone Residual in Water......Page 882 Health and Safety......Page 885 Regulatory Issues......Page 886 References......Page 887 Physical and Chemical Properties......Page 891 Bromine Production......Page 892 Chemistry of Bromine in Water and Wastewater Treatment......Page 894 Potable Water......Page 895 Wastewater......Page 896 Br(2) Facility Design......Page 897 System Description......Page 898 Comparison with Other Methods......Page 900 Physical and Chemical Properties......Page 901 Preparation of Bromine Chloride......Page 902 Chemistry of Bromine Chloride in Water......Page 903 Design of Bromine Chloride Facilities......Page 904 Comparison with Advantages of Other Methods......Page 908 Chemistry of BCDMH in Water and Wastewater......Page 909 Comparison with Chlorination......Page 910 Germicidal Efficiency (Br(2) and BrCl)......Page 912 Bromo-Organic Compounds......Page 914 Measurement of Bromine Residuals......Page 915 DPD Differentiation Method......Page 916 Health and Safety Aspects of Bromine Compounds......Page 917 Physical and Chemical Characteristics......Page 918 Production from Chile Saltpeter......Page 919 Applications......Page 920 Uses in Water Treatment......Page 921 Chemistry of Iodination......Page 922 Germicidal Efficiency......Page 925 Limitations of Iodination......Page 926 Iodination Facility......Page 927 Health and Safety Aspects of Iodine......Page 929 Bromine......Page 930 BCDMH......Page 931 References......Page 932 Wastewater Applications in Europe......Page 936 UV Applications in North America......Page 937 Drinking Water Applications in the United States......Page 939 UV Light......Page 940 Microbial Inactivation Mechanisms......Page 941 Microbial Repair......Page 942 UV Dose......Page 945 USEPA's Ultraviolet Disinfection Guidance Manual......Page 947 NWRI/AwwaRF's Ultraviolet Disinfection Guidelines for Drinking Water and Water Reuse......Page 950 USEPA's Design Manual for Municipal Wastewater Disinfection......Page 951 UV Lamps......Page 953 UV Reactors......Page 964 Ballasts......Page 967 Lamp Sleeves......Page 968 UV Sensors......Page 969 Cleaning Systems......Page 970 Temperature Sensors/Water Level Probes......Page 971 Particles/Suspended Solids......Page 972 Fouling......Page 974 UV System Validation......Page 975 Nonbiological, Mathematical-Based Modeling......Page 998 Emerging Methods......Page 1002 Maintenance Activities......Page 1004 Operational Issues......Page 1007 Electrical System Modifications......Page 1008 General......Page 1009 UV Light Exposure......Page 1010 Acute Health Effects of UV Exposure......Page 1011 Personal Protection......Page 1012 References......Page 1013 Historical Perspective......Page 1019 Chemistry of AOPs......Page 1020 Ozone Decomposition Initiated by Hydroxide......Page 1021 H(2)O(2)/UV......Page 1022 Fe(II)/H(2)O(2)/UV (Photo-Fenton Reaction)......Page 1023 TiO(2)/H(2)O(2)/UV......Page 1024 Oxidation of VOCs......Page 1025 Oxidation of Pesticides......Page 1028 Oxidation of Taste and Odor Compounds......Page 1031 Oxidation of Disinfection By-Product (DBP) Precursors......Page 1032 O(3)/H(2)O(2)......Page 1033 O(3)/UV......Page 1034 Fenton and Photo-Fenton Reactions......Page 1035 TiO(2)/UV......Page 1036 Regulations......Page 1037 Equipment and Generation......Page 1038 References......Page 1040 Appendix......Page 1046 Index......Page 1052 "Since the publication of the Fourth Edition of White's Handbook of Chlorination and Alternative Disinfectants more than ten years ago, the water industry has made substantial advances in their understanding and application of chlorine, hypochlorite, and alternative disinfectants for water and wastewater treatment. This Fifth Edition, with its extensive updates and revisions, reflects the current state of the science as well as the latest practices. Authored and reviewed by leading experts in the field of water and wastewater treatment, this Fifth Edition remains an ideal reference for utilities, regulators, engineers, and plant operators who need current information on the disinfection of potable water, wastewater, industrial water, and swimming pools"--Resource description page