When Children Draw Gods: A Multicultural and Interdisciplinary Approach to Children's Representations of Supernatural Agents (New Approaches to the Scientific Study of Religion, 12)

This open access book explores how children draw god. It looks at children’s drawings collected in a large variety of cultural and religious traditions. Coverage demonstrates the richness of drawing as a method for studying representations of the divine. In the process, it also contributes to our understanding of this concept, its origins, and its development. This intercultural work brings together scholars from different disciplines and countries, including Switzerland, Japan, Russia, Iran, Brazil, and the Netherlands. It does more than share the results of their research and analysis. The volume also critically examines the contributions and limitations of this methodology. In addition, it also reflects on the new empirical and theoretical perspectives within the broader framework of the study of this concept. The concept of god is one of the most difficult to grasp. This volume offers new insights by focusing on the many different ways children depict god throughout the world. Readers will discover the importance of spatial imagery and color choices in drawings of god. They will also learn about how the divine's emotional expression correlates to age, gender, and religiosity as well as strategies used by children who are prohibited from representing their god. Contents Chapter 1: Introduction to the Interdisciplinary and Intercultural Project Children’s Drawings of Gods: Presentation of the Project and of this Book Presentation of the Children’s Drawings of Gods Project A Work in Progress: From the Genesis of the Project to the Present Procedure and Instructions Ethical Considerations God, “God”, Gods, Supernatural Agent: A Note on Terminology Organisation of this Book References Part I: Towards an Integrative Model Chapter 2: Integrative Model of Children’s Representations of God in Drawings Outline of the Presentation Definitions Anthropomorphism in the Representation of Gods: Cognitive and Developmental Perspectives A Cognitive Perspective A Developmental Perspective Gender in Children’s Drawings of Gods Influence of Cultural Representations in Children’s Drawings of Gods Children’s Drawings of Gods from the Point of View of Attachment Theory Emotionality in Children’s Drawings of Gods Impact of Religious Education and Religious Socialization on Children’s Drawings of Gods Ambivalence: Attributing Contradictory Properties Simultaneously to Signify a Being Beyond Any Categorization Synthesis References Part II: Focus on the Main Figure: Anthropomorphic and Gender Features Chapter 3: Children’s God Representations: Are Anthropomorphic God Figures Only Human? Anthropomorphism in Religion Cognitive Approaches to Religion The Preparedness Hypothesis Ontological Categories of the Divine in Childhood The Semi-Propositional Nature of Cultural Representations Concept Development: Children’s Cognition and Socio-Cultural Background Categories and Domain-Specific Information The Importance of Testimony in Children’s Development of Various Concepts Complexity of God Figures: A View of Multiplicity Un-Dichotomizing a Binary-Based Change and Calling into Question Non-Anthropomorphic-Abstract/Symbolic Connections Types of God Representations and Their Multiplicity Conceptual Hybridism: A Case for God Representations? Anthropomorphic vs. Non-Anthropomorphic God Figures in Children’s Drawings of God A Revised Developmental Perspective on Anthropomorphic God Representations: Progressive De-Anthropomorphization What Is Meant by De-Anthropomorphization? What Is the Developmental Course for De-Anthropomorphization of Children’s Representations of God? General Scientific Rationale Conclusion References Chapter 4: Humanness and Non-Humanness in Children’s Drawings of God: A Case Study from French-Speaking Switzerland Current Research General Rationale Purpose of This Research General Method Data Collection Participants Materials Procedure Religiosity Measures Predictor Variables Religious Affiliation and Prayer Practice Statistical Analyses Study 1: Anthropomorphic vs. Non-Anthropomorphic God Figures: A Replication Study Study 1: Aim, Objective, and Research Question Hypotheses Construction of a Model of Anthropomorphism in God Representations Classification Procedure Classification System in the Model Results Discussion Study 2: Beyond Binaries: Empirically Testing Children’s Utilization of De-Anthropomorphization Strategies Aim, Objective and Research Question Hypotheses Method Assessment and Analyses Familiarization with the Data, Inventorying and Sampling Down De-Anthropomorphizing Strategies Cross-Category Within-the-Human-Figure Category: Features Scission-Combination Through the Background Constructing a Model of De-Anthropomorphization Samples Scoring Procedure Sample Characteristics Results Hypotheses Testing Testing Hypothesis 1 De-Anthropomorphization Testing Hypothesis 2 Developmental Patterns Additional Considerations: Fundamental Graphic Techniques Discussion General Discussion Limitations and Future Research Practical Implications Religious Education General Teaching Conclusion Appendix References Chapter 5: Construction and Transgression of Gender Categories in Representations of Divine Figures: A Cross-Cultural Study of Children’s Drawings Data Collection in Several Socio-Cultural and Religious Environments Hurdles Faced by the Participants, Hurdles Faced by the Researchers Forms of Normative Pressure and Transgressive Gender Typing Gender Categories and Children’s Socio-Demographics Data Sample Gender Categories and Object of Study Distribution of Gender Categories Cross-Cultural and Inter-Faith Comparison on Feminine Figures Gender of the Divine Figure vs. Gender of Participant Developmental Aspects Summary Strategies Used by Children to Express Gender in Drawings of God Masculine Divine Figures Feminine Divine Figures Androgynous Divine Figures Undifferentiated Divine Figures Summary Discussion References Chapter 6: Where Gods Dwell? Part I: Spatial Imagery in Children’s Drawings of Gods God’s Dwelling Place as Shown in Children’s Drawings: A Literature Review Aims of the Study Data Sample Method Drawing Task Coding Drawings Statistical Analysis Results Effects of Culture and Religion Effects of Age Effect of Children’s Gender Effects of Religious or Regular Schooling Contexts Discussion Conclusion References Chapter 7: Where Gods Dwell? Part II: Embodied Cognition Approach and Children’s Drawings of Gods The Embodied Cognition Approach and God Representation: A Literature Review Aims and Hypotheses Data Sample Method Drawing Task Annotation Statistical Analysis Results Control of Drawing Orientation and Composition Type Location of the God Figure in Relation to the Midline of the Page Predictors of an Up-Location of the God Figure Distribution of God Figures Across Three Parts of the Page: Down, Middle, Up Discussion Conclusion Limits of the Present Research and Potential Directions of Future Research References Part III: Focus on Material Features Chapter 8: Automated Colour Identification and Quantification in Children’s Drawings of God Colour in Religion Colour in General Children’s Drawings Research Colour in Children’s Drawings of Gods Hypotheses and Aims Method Drawing Task Sample Automated Colour Identification Data Analysis Results Number of Colours Used in Drawings Country and/or Culture Gender Age Type of Schooling The Most Used Colours in the Whole Dataset The Most Used Colours by Country, Gender, Age, and Type of Schooling Country and/or Culture Gender Age Type of Schooling General Discussion Conclusion Limitations References Chapter 9: Computer Vision and Mathematical Methods Used to Analyse Children’s Drawings of God(s) Method Dataset Features Gravity Colour Frequencies Colour Organization God Position Anthropomorphism Dissimilarities Based on Features Clustering Based on Dissimilarities Results Anthropomorphism Position and Gravity Position Gravity Combination of Position and Gravity Colour Colour Frequencies Colour Gravity Colour Organization Combination of Features Directly Extracted from the Drawing Combination of All Features Correlation Between Numeric Features Discussion References Part IV: Focus on Emotional Features and Attachment Style Chapter 10: Emotional Expression in Children’s Drawings of God The Development of Expressive Drawing and Individual Differences The Case for Studying Emotional Expression in Children’s Concept of God Research on Children’s Drawings of God A Quantitative Examination on the Intensity and Valence of Emotional Expression in Children’s Drawings of God Narrative Account of God and Theological Themes God is Sovereign and Ineffable God the Creator God Is Love, Peace, Watching over Us God Is Angry and Punishing Jesus’ Crucifixion and/or Sacrifice God Is Our Friend, Our Guide Heaven and Hell Discussion References Chapter 11: Different Attachment Styles in Relation to Children’s Drawings of God: A Qualitative Exploration of the Use of Symbols in a Dutch Sample Theoretical Framework: God Representations and Attachment Theory Attachment Relationships and Religion Children’s Drawings of Gods and Attachment Empirical Research: Process, Findings, and New Questions Comparing Drawings by Securely and Insecurely Attached Children: A Qualitative Analysis Research Questions, Hypotheses and Attachment Questionnaire Method Results Images Discussion and Conclusion References Part V: Focus on Specific Cultural Contexts Chapter 12: Iranian Children’s Drawings of God: Demographic and Contextual Considerations Method Population and Sample Instruments Procedure Data Analysis Methods Ethical Considerations Results Discussion Children’s Representations of God Representations of God in Terms of Child’s Gender Children’s Representations of God in Terms of Their Age Children’s Representations of God in Terms of Their Social Environment Masculinity-Femininity of the Representation of God in Terms of Participant’s Gender and Age Overall Conclusion Appendix: Samples of Themes and Examples of Masculine or Feminine God Representations References Chapter 13: The First Discoveries and the Challenges of Researching Representations of Gods in a Continental Country Such as Brazil A Brief History of the Collection of Drawings in Brazil The Particularities of the Brazilian Educational Context Religion in Brazil The Collection of Drawings Results The Guajajaras Sample Main Challenges and Prospects for the Future References Part VI: Focus on Non-Representability and Prohibition Chapter 14: Biblical Aniconism? Representing the Gods of Ancient Israel and Judah Should One Set Aniconism and Iconism in Opposition? Evidence for Images of Yhwh in Israel and Judah Representations of Yhwh in the North (Israel) Representations of Yhwh in the South (Judah) Iconism and Aniconism The Rise of Judaism and the Rise of Aniconism To Conclude References Chapter 15: The Representation of God in Islam and Its Prohibition: Strategies Used by Iranian Children When Asked to Draw God The Islamic Prohibition Against Representing Allah The Question of Images in the Hadiths (The Prophetic Words and the Words of the Imams) Hadiths The Literature Studies Done in Iran Concerning Children’s Understandings of Religious Concepts Studies on the Comprehensions of Religious Concepts Studies on Children’s Understandings of the Concept of God Studies on the Norm and Children’s Understandings of the Prohibition to Draw God Iranian Children’s Drawings of God: Context, Research Question, and Hypotheses Drawing of Prophets and Imams Research question Methods Educational and Cultural References (Textbooks and Other Media) Step One The Media (Television) Step Two Results Discussion Conclusion Websites Consulted (Last Viewed 5 March 2019) Appendix References Part VII: Focus on Comparison with Other Supernatural Agents Chapter 16: Natural and Supernatural Agents: Children’s Representations of Gods and Dead Entities A Theoretical Approach to Explore Children’s Drawings The Use of Graphical Representations in Two Methodological Designs Study 1: Children’s Comprehension of Human Death Study 2: Children’s Drawings of Gods The Gods and the Dead on a Sheet of Paper What Did They Draw? Where Did They Draw Them? How Did They Draw Them? Final Comments References Part VIII: Focus on the Research Process Chapter 17: “Equipping Work” and the Production of a Large-Scale Digital Infrastructure: An Ethnographic Inquiry into the Children’s Drawings of Gods Project The Sociological Study of Knowledge Infrastructures Studying “Infrastructures-in-the-Making” Invisibility and Infrastructural Inversion Data and Knowledge Infrastructures New Challenges Methodological Approach From Drawings to Data: Some Steps on the “Long and Winding Road” of Equipping Work Producing “Raw” Data Producing “Objective” Descriptors Conclusion References Chapter 18: Brief History of the Database Children’s Drawings of Gods (2015–2019) State of the Database in 2015 Problems of the Architecture of the SQL Database and Their Influence upon the Research Project Two Options of Resolving the Structural Problems of the SQL DB The State of the Database in February 2019: The New Database Structure Future Development and Open Questions References Chapter 19: Interdisciplinarity, Team Science, and the Next Generation of Researchers: The Children’s Drawings of Gods Project Experience Complexity, Interculturality, and Digital Humanities in the Children’s Drawings of Gods Project Interdisciplinarity From Disciplinarity to Transdisciplinarity Positioning Interdisciplinarity in Action Team Science Researcher Profiles Conclusion References Part IX: Interdisciplinary Approaches to Drawings of Gods: Challenges, Achievements, and Perspectives Chapter 20: Interdisciplinary Approaches to Children’s Drawings of Gods: Challenges, Achievements and Perspectives Main Results for the Study of Children’s Representations of God Contributions and Limitations of the Methodology of Drawings for Studying Children’s Representations of God Benefits and Limitations of Interdisciplinary Approaches That Combine Computer Vision, Database Management, and Developmental Psychology New Perspectives In the Field of the Sciences of Religions In the Field of Religious Art The Study of Creativity and Creative Processes Developmental Psychology and Developmental Norms Conclusion References Appendix: Index of the Project Database Images