تقویم‌ها و سیستم‌های نوشتاری مایاهای غربی: مقالات میزگرد کپنهاگ

Western Mesoamerican Calendars and Writing Systems draws together studies by some of the world's leading experts presented at a conference held in December 2020, 'The Origins and Developments of Central Mexican Calendars and Writing Systems'. Mesoamerica is one of the few places to witness the independent invention of writing. From the earliest attestations of this intellectual feat in the Late Preclassic period (c. 900 bc-ad 150), writing spread throughout Mesoamerica, developing and diversifying into a series of distinct and independent scripts. With the exception of the celebrated phonetic decipherments of Maya and Aztec writing, which are now well-documented and can be fully read, most Mesoamerican writing systems remain little studied and undeciphered. This is particularly true of the writing systems of Western Mesoamerica, the topic of this volume. Bringing together new research on Western Mesoamerican writing systems, some contributions focus on specific features of a given writing system, whereas others offer state-of-the-art syntheses of whole writing systems. Two contributions focus on the calendar in particular, and associated notations, as integral parts of writing systems. Chapters are included on the writing system of Teotihuacan, the Nuine writing of the Mixteca Baja and adjoining areas, the writing system of the Epiclassic period and Aztec writing of the Postclassic. These writing systems represent more than a millennium of written records and literacy in Mesoamerica, spanning from the Early Classic to the Late Postclassic (from the 2nd to the sixteenth centuries ad). Aztec writing even continued in use for several decades after the Spanish invasion of Mexico (ad 1519-1521), which saw the introduction of the Latin alphabet and the gradual obsolescence of Mesoamerican logophonetic writing systems. Western Mesoamerican Calendars and Writing Systems draws together studies by some of the world’s leading experts presented at a conference held in December 2020, ‘The Origins and Developments of Central Mexican Calendars and Writing Systems’. Mesoamerica is one of the few places to witness the independent invention of writing. From the earliest attestations of this intellectual feat in the Late Preclassic period (c. 900 bc-ad 150), writing spread throughout Mesoamerica, developing and diversifying into a series of distinct and independent scripts. With the exception of the celebrated phonetic decipherments of Maya and Aztec writing, which are now well-documented and can be fully read, most Mesoamerican writing systems remain little studied and undeciphered. This is particularly true of the writing systems of Western Mesoamerica, the topic of this volume. Bringing together new research on Western Mesoamerican writing systems, some contributions focus on specific features of a given writing system, whereas others offer state-of-the-art syntheses of whole writing systems. Two contributions focus on the calendar in particular, and associated notations, as integral parts of writing systems. Chapters are included on the writing system of Teotihuacan, the Ñuiñe writing of the Mixteca Baja and adjoining areas, the writing system of the Epiclassic period and Aztec writing of the Postclassic. These writing systems represent more than a millennium of written records and literacy in Mesoamerica, spanning from the Early Classic to the Late Postclassic (from the 2nd to the sixteenth centuries ad). Aztec writing even continued in use for several decades after the Spanish invasion of Mexico (ad 1519-1521), which saw the introduction of the Latin alphabet and the gradual obsolescence of Mesoamerican logophonetic writing systems. Mikkel Bøg Clemmensen is a doctoral fellow at the Institute for Cross-cultural and Regional Studies at the University of Copenhagen. He has a BA in the Science of Religion and an MA in American Indian Languages and Cultures; his field of study is religion and art in Colonial Mexico. Mikkel has previously published articles on colonial church art. He is currently finishing his dissertation on the continuity of the Central Mexican calendar systems during the Colonial era. Christophe Helmke is Associate Professor of American Indian Languages and Cultures at the Institute of Cross-cultural and Regional Studies, at the University of Copenhagen, Denmark. Since 1996, he has participated on and led excavations, archaeological reconnaissance and epigraphic documentation at a variety of sites in Belize, Guatemala and Mexico. Since 2019 he has served as co-Principal Investigator of The Central Mexican Writing Systems and Calendars project, funded by the Velux Foundations. Cover 1 Title Page 3 Copyright page 6 Contents Page 7 List of Figures 8 The thirteen named days of the trecena headed by the date ‘1 Water’ (detail of Book 4, folio 82v, from the Florentine Codex, dated 1577). Reproduced from photograph in the World Digital Library Collection (LCCN permalink: https://lccn.loc.gov/2021667837) 12 Chapter 1: The Writing System of Teotihuacan: An Overview 19 Figure 1.1: The “bent-arm” and “dart butt” glyphs (drawings by Christophe Helmke). 20 Figure 1.2: Day signs in the 260-day ritual calendar of Teotihuacan 21 Figure 1.3: Calendrical glyphs recording named years and New Fire ceremonies. 22 Figure 1.4: Toponyms involving mountain-shaped glyphs. 23 Figure 1.5: Toponymic elements and glyphic compounds. 25 Figure 1.6: The names of buildings. 27 Figure 1.7: Personal names and titles. 29 Figure 1.8: Personal names and/or titles. 30 Figure 1.9: Possible verbal glyphic compounds. 31 Figure 1.10: Examples of glyphic compounds. 33 Figure 1.11: Text/image relationships. 35 Figure 1.12: Dew-emitting, red and yellow bent flowers depicted along the frame of the doorway of Portico 2 at Tepantitla (drawing by Christophe Helmke). 37 Chapter 2: The Writing System of Western Oaxaca: The Ñuiñe Style in a Regional Context 43 Figure 2.1: Map of the Mixteca region showing the rivers and communities mentioned in the text (this and all figures by the author, unless otherwise indicated). 44 Figure 2.2: Carved cornerstones of Huamelulpan. 46 Figure 2.3: The main group of painting at the Puente Colosal, Tepelmeme, Oaxaca. 47 Figure 2.4: Detail of the main group at the Puente Colosal, processed in the programme Dstrech. 48 Figure 2.5: Monument 21 of San Pedro y San Pablo Tequixtepec, Oaxaca. 52 Figure 2.6: “Glyph V” (‘Crocodile’) in the calendar and iconography of the Mixteca. 53 Figure 2.7: Orientation and directionality of texts in Ñuiñe inscripciones. 54 Figure 2.8: Examples of the year glyph used in the Mixteca. 55 Figure 2.9: The year glyph in the Mixteca Baja and the sequence of year-bearers used: The earliest at the top and the most recent at the bottom. 56 Figure 2.10: Ñuiñe limestone panels that use “Glyph U” as their base. 57 Figure 2.11: “Glyph U” used as part of Ñuiñe effigy vessels. 58 Figure 2.12: Conquest scene on Monument 7 of Cerro de la Caja, San Pedro y San Pablo Tequixtepec, Oaxaca and a comparable scene in the Lienzo de Suchitepec (Oaxaca), dated to the 16th century 59 Figure 2.13: Ñuiñe cornerstones with calendrical glyphs. 60 Figure 2:14: Ñuiñe monuments with the year-bearer ‘9 Reed’ and the goddess ‘9 Reed’ in Postclassic Mixtec manuscripts. 61 Figure 2.15: Monument 1 of San Miguel Ixitlan, Puebla. 62 Figure 2.16: The scene in Tomb 1 at Jaltepetongo. 63 Figure 2.17: The Codex Tulane (Codex Huamelulpan) and the Codex Vindobonensis, showing shared dates and deities 64 Chapter 3: The Writing System of Epiclassic Central Mexico 67 Figure 3.1: Map of Mesoamerica showing the location of archaeological sites mentioned in the text. 68 Figure 3.2: Epiclassic stelae. 69 Figure 3.3: Fragmentary glyphic panels at the site of El Cerrito in Queretaro. 70 Figure 3.4: Examples of Epiclassic writing at the site of Chichen Itza, Yucatan. 71 Figure 3.5: The two faces of the trapezoidal monument from Teotenango. 73 Figure 3.6: Depictions of codices in central Mexican iconography, represented by the logogram for ‘day, feast’, suggesting that these are divinatory almanacs. 73 Figure 3.7: The continuity of central Mexican writing as exemplified by the use of shared logograms. 74 Figure 3.8: The calendrical signs of Epiclassic writing. 75 Figure 3.10: Aztec copy of an original Epiclassic sculpture commemorating a New Fire ritual. 76 Figure 3.9: Possible records of New Fire ceremonies involving the “Reptile Eye” glyph with varying coefficients. 76 Figure 3.11: Examples of a warrior-priest title found in Epiclassic texts, written in three basic graphic forms, including a)-b) geometric, c) head-variant and d) full-figure. 77 Figure 3.12: Examples of the pars pro toto principle in central Mexican writing. 78 Figure 3.13: The graphic evolution of day sign cartouches in central Mexican writing from the Early Classic to the Early Colonial period. 78 Figure 3.14: Unusual combinations of bars and dots demonstrating the transitional nature of Epiclassic writing. 79 Figure 3.15: Linear sequences of glyphs recorded on the Pyramid of the Feathered Serpent at Xochicalco. 80 Figure 3.16: Asymmetrical columns of glyphs recorded on the piers of Structure A at Cacaxtla. 81 Figure 3.17: An example of bostrouphedon reading order present in Epiclassic writing: Xochicalco, Stela 1 (height above lowest carving: 1.23m). 82 Figure 3.18: Toponyms recorded in the texts of Xochicalco compared to analogous place names. 83 Figure 3.19: Naming buildings at Xochicalco. 84 Chapter 4: What happened to TLATOANI and tlăhtŏhkĕh? Three classes of signs and two types of spellings in Nahuatl hieroglyphic writing 93 Figure 4.1: The “Pointed Diadem” sign, TEKW LORD in Aztec hieroglyphic writing. 95 Figure 4.2: Aztec titles written by combinations of logographic signs. 96 Figure 4.3: Spanish titles in Aztec hieroglyphic writing. 97 Figure 4.4: Hieroglyphic spellings of direct speech. 98 Figure 4.5: Syntax in the annual records of the Códice en Cruz 100 Figure 4.6: The biography of Nesawalkoyotl according to the annual records in the Códice en Cruz 102 Figure 4.7: Hieroglyphic names with the sign “Woven Throne with Backrest” (transliterated as X). 104 Figure 4.8: The sign “Woven Throne with Backrest” as a verb (transliterated as X). 105 Figure 4.9: The sign “Woven Throne with Backrest” accompanied by glosses in Latin characters (transliterated as X). 107 Figure 4.10: The sign “Woven Throne with Backrest” on Tikal Stela 31 (transliterated as X). 109 Chapter 5: The Lienzos de Tlaxcala & Quauhquechollan: The Conquest of Guatemala and Sixteenth Century Nahuatl Hieroglyphic Writing 114 Figure 5.1: Lienzo de Tlaxcala. 116 Figure 5.2: Lienzo de Quauhquechollan 117 Figure 5.3: Lienzo de Tlaxcala. 118 Figure 5.4: Lienzo de Quauhquechollan. 118 Figure 5.5: Lienzo de Quauhquechollan. 119 Figure 5.6: Lienzo de Quauhquechollan. 120 Figure 5.7: Lienzo de Quauhquechollan. 120 Figure 5.8: Lienzo de Tlaxcala. 121 Figure 5.10: Comparison between the a) Lienzo de Quauhquechollan and b) the Matrícula de Huexotzingo. 122 Figure 5.9: Lienzo Quauhquechollan. 122 Figure 5.11: Lienzo de Quauhquechollan. 123 Figure 5.12: Lienzo de Quauhquechollan. 124 Figure 5.13: Lienzo de Tlaxcala. 124 Figure 5.14: Infixes. 125 Figure 5.15: Quilizinapa, caso 34. 125 Figure 5.16: Lienzo de Quauhquechollan. 126 Figure 5.17: Título de Santa María Ixhuatán. 126 Figure 5.18: Lienzo de Tlaxcala and Lienzo de Quauhquechollan. 127 Figure 5.19: Lienzo de Tlaxcala. 128 Figure 5.20: Spelling of names with the glyphs XOCH-a. 129 Figure 5.21: Lienzo de Quauhquechollan. 129 Figure 5.22: Spatial distribution of conquered towns. 130 Chapter 6: Precolumbian Precursors to the Central Mexican Colonial Calendar Wheels1 147 Figure 6.1: The wheel of the year by Bartholomaeus Anglicus. 149 Figure 6.2: Computistical wheel for the years 1558 to 1587. 150 Figure 6.3: Codex Borgia, page 30. 152 Figure 6.4: Mexicain 20. 153 Figure 6.5: The Aztec calendar stone 155 Figure 6.6: The Boban calendar wheel (c. 1540). 157 Figure 6.7: The wheel from Gemelli Careri’s Giro del mondo (1699-1700). 161 Figure 6.8: The wheel from Muñoz Camargo’s Relación de Tlaxcala. 162 Figure 6.9: Teucilhuitontli and Teucilhuitl. 163 Chapter 7: The Nahua Year Revisited: Translating Temporal Conceptions1 166 Figure 7.1: Nahua numbers. 167 Figure 7.2: Detail of the first section of the Codex Borgia (page 5). 168 Figure 7.3: Sequence of days (drawings by Christophe Helmke). 168 Figure 7.4: Variations for the glyph ILWI (ilwitl). 172 Figure 7.5: A deer displays a tônalâmatl spread over its entire body and a codex across its lap 173 Figure 7.6: The day signs of the tônalpôwalli as represented in the Codex Borgia 174 Figure 7.7: Calendar No. 4 of Mariano Echeverría y Veytia (copied by Carlos de Singüenza). 176 Figure 7.8: The xiwitl represented as a calendar of 18 deities. 178 Figure 7.9: The xiwitl represented as a calendar of 18 events linked to the festivities of the veintenas. 179 Figure 7.10: A selection of named feasts recorded in Nahua writing (drawings by Ana Díaz). 180 Figure 7.11: Transformation of the glyph Âtemôstli. 181 Figure 7.12: Monument that commemorates a xiwmolpilli on the year 1-Âkatl, Pânketsalistli. 182 List of Tables 10 Table 2.1: Tabulation of the day glyphs used in the Mixteca during the Classic and Late Classic periods (drawings by Ángel Iván Rivera Guzmán) and comparisons with the ones used in the Postclassic (Codex Vindobonensis; drawings by Christophe Helmke). 49 Table 3.1: Distribution of Epiclassic texts according to site of discovery and the type of supports that these are found on. The heading “Monument” includes both complete freestanding monuments and fragments thereof; “Architectural elements” include stucc 72 Table 5.1: Analysis of the Nahuatl hieroglyphs (toponyms). 133 Table 7.1: Sources analysed for tracing the transformation of the repertoire of the veintenas. 177 A Few Words on the Copenhagen Roundtable and its Proceedings 11 Christophe Helmke and Mikkel Bøg Clemmensen 11 Chapter 1: The Writing System of Teotihuacan: An Overview 19 Davide Domenici 19 Chapter 2: The Writing System of Western Oaxaca: The Ñuiñe Style in a Regional Context 43 Ángel Iván Rivera Guzmán 43 Chapter 3: The Writing System of Epiclassic Central Mexico 67 Christophe Helmke and Jesper Nielsen 67 Chapter 4: What happened to TLATOANI and tlăhtŏhkĕh? Three classes of signs and two types of spellings in Nahuatl hieroglyphic writing 93 Albert Davletshin 93 Chapter 5: The Lienzos de Tlaxcala & Quauhquechollan: The Conquest of Guatemala and Sixteenth Century Nahuatl Hieroglyphic Writing 114 Margarita Cossich Vielman 114 Chapter 6: Precolumbian Precursors to the Central Mexican Colonial Calendar Wheels1 147 Mikkel Bøg Clemmensen 147 Chapter 7: The Nahua Year Revisited: Translating Temporal Conceptions1 166 Ana Díaz 166 Resúmenes 185 Author Biographies 189 Mesoamerica,Epigraphy,Writing Systems,Pre-Columbian Americas