Water Quality Assessments : A Guide to the Use of Biota, Sediments and Water in Environmental Monitoring, Second Edition

This guidebook, now thoroughly updated and revised in its second edition, gives comprehensive advice on the designing and setting up of monitoring programmes for the purpose of providing valid data for water quality assessments in all types of freshwater bodies. It is clearly and concisely written in order to provide the essential information for a Water Quality Assessments: A Guide to the Use of Biota, Sediments and Water in Environmental Monitoring, Second Edition......Page 3 Foreword to the first edition......Page 9 Foreword to the second edition......Page 11 Summary and scope......Page 13 Acknowledgements......Page 17 Abbreviations used in text......Page 19 Contents......Page 5 1.1.1 Hydrodynamic features......Page 22 1.1.2 Physical and chemical properties......Page 25 1.1.3 Biological characteristics......Page 26 1.2 Definitions related to water quality......Page 27 1.3 Anthropogenic impacts on water quality......Page 30 1.4 Pollutant sources and pathways......Page 33 1.5 Spatial and temporal variations......Page 37 1.6 Economic development and water quality......Page 39 1.7 References......Page 42 2.2.1 Monitoring, survey and surveillance......Page 44 2.2.2 Objectives of water quality assessment......Page 46 2.2.3 Elements of water quality assessment......Page 49 2.2.4 Levels of water quality assessment......Page 51 2.3 Typical water quality monitoring programmes......Page 52 2.4.1 Selection of media to sample......Page 55 2.4.2 Water quality variability and sampling frequency......Page 59 2.4.4 Review of water quality assessment design......Page 62 2.5.1 Administrative co-ordination of water quality assessment......Page 63 2.5.2 Field operations......Page 65 2.5.3 Laboratory organisation......Page 66 2.6 Data processing......Page 68 2.7.1 Quality control of field work......Page 69 2.7.2 Analytical quality control......Page 72 2.7.3 Control of data storage and treatment......Page 73 2.8 Interpretation and dissemination of data......Page 74 2.9 Recommendations......Page 75 2.10 References......Page 76 3.2 Hydrological variables......Page 79 3.2.2 Discharge......Page 84 3.2.4 Suspended matter dynamics......Page 85 3.3.1 Temperature......Page 86 3.3.3 Odour......Page 87 3.3.4 Residue and total suspended solids......Page 88 3.3.6 Conductivity......Page 89 3.3.7 pH, acidity and alkalinity......Page 90 3.3.9 Dissolved oxygen......Page 92 3.3.10 Carbon dioxide......Page 94 3.3.11 Hardness......Page 95 3.3.12 Chlorophyll......Page 96 3.4.1 Nitrogen compounds......Page 97 3.4.2 Phosphorus compounds......Page 104 3.5.1 Total organic carbon......Page 106 3.5.3 Biochemical oxygen demand......Page 107 3.5.4 Humic and fulvic acids......Page 108 3.6.1 Sodium......Page 109 3.6.2 Potassium......Page 110 3.6.4 Magnesium......Page 111 3.6.6 Chloride......Page 112 3.6.7 Sulphate......Page 113 3.7.2 Silica......Page 114 3.7.3 Fluoride......Page 115 3.7.4 Boron......Page 116 3.7.5 Cyanide......Page 117 3.8.1 General principles......Page 118 3.8.2 Sampling and measurement......Page 121 3.9.1 General principles......Page 122 3.9.2 Mineral oil and petroleum products......Page 123 3.9.4 Pesticides......Page 125 3.9.5 Surfactants......Page 127 3.10 Microbiological indicators......Page 128 3.11.1 Selection of variables in relation to water use......Page 131 3.12 Summary and recommendations......Page 141 3.13 References......Page 145 4.1 Introduction......Page 147 4.2.1 Natural sources of particulate matter......Page 148 4.2.2 Chemical composition of river suspended matter......Page 149 4.3 Transport and deposition......Page 151 4.3.2 Transport mechanisms......Page 154 4.3.3 River transport and variations in total suspended solids with water discharge......Page 156 4.3.4 Lake sedimentation......Page 157 4.4.2 The form of pollutants bound to particulate matter......Page 160 4.4.3 Effects of changing environmental conditions......Page 162 4.4.4 Internal recycling......Page 163 4.5 Sampling of particulate matter......Page 164 4.6.1 Chemical analysis schemes for sediment......Page 166 4.6.2 Core dating......Page 168 4.6.3 Analytical compensation for grain size effect......Page 169 4.7.3 Sampling design......Page 170 4.7.4 Sampling frequency......Page 173 4.8.2 Correction of results......Page 175 4.8.3 Assessment of pollutant concentrations......Page 177 4.8.4 Mass transfer of pollutants in rivers and lakes......Page 178 4.9 The use of particulate material in water quality assessments: case studies......Page 180 4.9.2 River studies......Page 181 4.9.3 Lake studies......Page 187 4.10 Conclusions and future developments......Page 191 4.11 References......Page 192 5.1 Introduction......Page 195 5.2.1 Natural features of aquatic environments......Page 196 5.2.2 Anthropogenic influences on water bodies......Page 197 5.2.3 Physical alterations in the aquatic environment......Page 198 5.2.5 The duration of exposure......Page 199 5.2.7 Chelating capacity......Page 200 5.2.8 Acidity......Page 201 5.3.1 Biological effects used for assessment of the aquatic environment......Page 202 5.3.2 Advantages of biological methods......Page 204 5.3.3 Types of biological assessment......Page 205 5.4.1 Indices based on selected species or groups of organisms......Page 206 5.4.2 Community structure indices......Page 221 5.4.3 Plants as indicators of water quality......Page 223 5.5.1 Indicators of faecal contamination......Page 225 5.6 Physiological and biochemical methods......Page 227 5.6.2 Oxygen Production Potential......Page 228 5.6.3 Additional consumption method......Page 229 5.6.4 Chlorophyll fluorescence......Page 230 5.7 Methods for assessing toxic pollution in controlled environments......Page 231 5.7.1 Acute and sub-lethal toxicity......Page 234 5.7.2 Tests for carcinogenic, mutagenic, or teratogenic capacity......Page 236 5.8 The use of aquatic organisms in chemical monitoring......Page 237 5.8.1 Criteria for organism selection......Page 239 5.8.2 Necessary precautions when using biota for chemical analysis......Page 240 5.9 Histological and morphological methods......Page 242 5.10.1 Sampling strategies......Page 243 5.10.2 Sampling techniques......Page 244 5.11.1 Impact assessment......Page 247 5.11.2 Spatial surveys for contaminants and potential toxic effects......Page 249 5.11.3 Early warning monitoring......Page 250 5.11.4 Trends in biological concentrations and biological effects......Page 251 5.11.5 Impact of accidental pollution......Page 252 5.12 Conclusions and recommendations......Page 253 5.13 References......Page 254 6.1 Introduction......Page 263 6.2.1 River classification......Page 264 6.2.2 Velocity and discharge......Page 266 6.2.3 Fluctuations in suspended solids......Page 270 6.2.4 In-stream velocities......Page 271 6.3 Chemical characteristics......Page 272 6.3.1 Origins of elements carried by rivers......Page 273 6.3.2 Natural concentrations in rivers......Page 275 6.3.3 Variations of water quality with river discharge......Page 278 6.3.4 Temporal variations in water quality: trends and fluxes......Page 283 6.4.1 Factors affecting biological communities in running waters......Page 286 6.4.2 Pelagic communities......Page 289 6.4.3 Benthic and attached communities......Page 290 6.4.4 River zonation......Page 291 6.5.1 Changes in physical characteristics......Page 294 6.5.3 Organic matter......Page 295 6.5.4 River eutrophication......Page 296 6.5.5 Salinisation......Page 298 6.5.6 Acidification......Page 300 6.5.7 Trace elements......Page 302 6.5.8 Nitrate pollution in rivers......Page 303 6.5.9 Organic micropollutants......Page 304 6.5.10 Changes in river hydrology......Page 306 6.6.1 Physical transport and the use of bottom or suspended sediments......Page 307 6.6.2 Use of biological methods in rivers......Page 310 6.6.3 Sampling frequency......Page 313 6.6.4 Spatial distribution of samples......Page 318 6.6.5 Sampling methods......Page 321 6.6.7 Co-ordination of various types of monitoring......Page 322 6.7.1 Preliminary surveys......Page 325 6.7.3 Basic surveys......Page 326 6.7.5 Trend and flux monitoring......Page 328 6.7.6 Early warning surveillance and associated networks......Page 331 6.7.7 Surveys for water quality modelling......Page 332 6.8 Summary and conclusions......Page 333 6.9 References......Page 334 7.1 Introduction......Page 341 7.2.1 Origins of lakes......Page 342 7.2.2 Classification of lakes......Page 343 7.2.3 Physical/thermal lake types......Page 344 7.2.4 Trophic status......Page 348 7.2.5 Water balance......Page 351 7.3 Water quality issues......Page 353 7.3.1 Eutrophication......Page 354 7.3.2 Health related issues and organic wastes......Page 358 7.3.3 Contaminants......Page 359 7.3.4 Lake acidification......Page 366 7.3.6 Issue summary......Page 372 7.4 The application of sediment studies in lakes......Page 373 7.5 Assessment strategies......Page 375 7.5.2 Examples of sampling programme design......Page 376 7.6 Approaches to lake assessment: case studies......Page 379 7.6.1 General basic surveys......Page 380 7.6.2 Assessment of trends......Page 382 7.6.4 Biological monitoring......Page 385 7.7 Summary and conclusions......Page 388 7.8 References......Page 390 8.1 Introduction......Page 393 8.1.1 Definitions......Page 394 8.2 Construction and uses......Page 395 8.2.1 Typology......Page 396 8.2.2 Uses......Page 399 8.3 Special characteristics of reservoirs......Page 402 8.3.1 Thermal characteristics......Page 404 8.3.2 Chemical characteristics......Page 408 8.3.3 Biological characteristics......Page 411 8.3.4 Trophic classification......Page 414 8.4 Water quality issues......Page 415 8.4.1 Eutrophication......Page 416 8.4.2 Public health impacts and contaminants......Page 419 8.5 Sampling strategies......Page 420 8.5.1 Selection of sampling site......Page 422 8.5.2 Sampling for horizontal and vertical characterisation......Page 423 8.5.3 Variable selection......Page 425 8.5.4 The use of management models......Page 426 8.6.2 Operational surveillance......Page 427 8.6.3 Eutrophication studies......Page 429 8.6.4 Assessment of trends......Page 430 8.7 Summary and conclusions......Page 431 8.8 References......Page 432 9.1 Introduction......Page 437 9.2.1 Occurrence of groundwater......Page 439 9.2.2 Groundwater flow......Page 443 9.2.3 Groundwater flow systems......Page 446 9.2.4 Matrix of aquifer types......Page 449 9.2.5 Contaminant transport......Page 452 9.2.6 Chemical characteristics of groundwater......Page 454 9.2.7 Biological characteristics of groundwater......Page 456 9.3.1 Natural hydrochemical evolution......Page 460 9.3.2 Reactions related to anthropogenic effects......Page 465 9.4 Groundwater quality issues......Page 466 9.4.1 Unsewered domestic sanitation......Page 470 9.4.2 Disposal of liquid urban and industrial waste......Page 473 9.4.4 Accidents and leaks......Page 476 9.4.5 Acid deposition......Page 478 9.4.6 Cultivation with agrochemicals......Page 479 9.4.7 Salinity from irrigation......Page 484 9.4.8 Use of urban wastewater for irrigation......Page 485 9.4.9 Mining activities......Page 486 9.4.10 Groundwater resource management......Page 487 9.5.1 Types of groundwater assessment......Page 488 9.5.2 Establishment of an assessment strategy......Page 489 9.5.3 Defining objectives......Page 490 9.5.5 Preliminary surveys......Page 492 9.5.6 Design of groundwater quality assessment......Page 498 9.5.7 Field operations......Page 512 9.5.8 Data treatment......Page 515 9.5.9 Interpretation and reporting......Page 516 9.6.1 Diffuse source pollution from agriculture......Page 517 9.6.2 Waste disposal to landfill......Page 519 9.6.3 Bacteriological assessment of rural water supplies......Page 521 9.6.4 Trend monitoring......Page 524 9.6.5 National groundwater quality assessment programme in former Czechoslovakia......Page 526 9.7 Conclusions and recommendations......Page 527 9.8 References......Page 528 10.1 Introduction......Page 535 10.2.1 Cost-benefit analysis of a computerised data handling system......Page 536 10.2.2 Approaches to data storage......Page 538 10.2.3 Information retrieval......Page 541 10.3.1 Recognition of data types......Page 542 10.3.2 Data validation......Page 547 10.3.3 Quality assurance of data......Page 551 10.4 Basic statistics......Page 552 10.4.1 Parametric and non-parametric statistics......Page 554 10.4.2 Median, range and percentiles......Page 556 10.4.3 Mean, standard deviation, variance and coefficient of variation......Page 559 10.4.4 Normal distributions......Page 560 10.4.5 Non-normal distribution......Page 573 10.4.6 Probability distributions......Page 576 10.4.7 Error statistics......Page 578 10.4.8 Confidence limits......Page 580 10.4.9 Hypothesis testing......Page 582 10.5 Basic graphical methods......Page 586 10.5.1 Basic rules for graphical presentation of water quality data......Page 587 10.5.2 Time series plots variable versus time......Page 588 10.5.3 Seasonal diagrams......Page 589 10.5.4 Spatial plots variable versus position......Page 591 10.5.5 Summarising water quality characteristics......Page 592 10.5.7 Spatial and temporal comparison of water quality variables......Page 596 10.5.8 Ancillary information......Page 598 10.6.1 Trend analysis......Page 599 10.6.2 Time series analysis......Page 601 10.6.3 Regression analysis......Page 602 10.6.4 Correlation analysis......Page 605 10.6.5 Principal components analysis......Page 610 10.6.6 Water quality indices......Page 612 10.7 Advanced data analysis and management techniques......Page 613 10.7.1 Models......Page 614 10.7.2 Geographic Information Systems......Page 615 10.7.3 Expert systems......Page 617 10.8.1 Description of water quality......Page 619 10.8.2 Prediction of water quality......Page 620 10.8.3 Compliance with water quality guidelines......Page 622 10.8.5 State of the Environment SOE reporting......Page 623 10.9 References......Page 625 Appendix 10.1......Page 629 References......Page 636