War and Geopolitics in Interwar Manchuria : Zhang Zuolin and the Fengtian Clique During the Northern Expedition

In __War and Geopolitics in Interwar Manchuria__ Kwong Chi Man revisits the civil wars in China (1925-1928) from the perspective of the often-overlooked "warlords," who fought against the joint forces of the Nationalist and Communist parties. In particular, this work focuses on Zhang Zuolin, the leader of the "Fengian Clique" who was sometimes seen as the representative of the Japanese interest in Manchuria. Using primary and secondary sources from China, Japan, the United Kingdom and the United States, this work tries to revisit the wars during the period from international, political, military, and economic-financial perspectives. It sheds new light on Zhang Zuolin's decision to fight against the Nationalists and the Communists and offers an alternative explanation to the Nationalists (temporary) victory by revealing the central importance of geopolitics in the civil wars in China during the interwar period. Contents 5 Acknowledgements 9 List of Illustrations 11 List of Abbreviations 13 Note on Romanization 14 Introduction 15 Introduction: “Northern Expedition,” or the War for Northeast Asia? 15 State Formation and Geopolitics 19 Strategic History as an Approach 23 Northeast Asia and the “Northern Expedition” 25 The Military Factor 30 Structure 33 Chapter 1 35 Becoming “The Eastern Three Provinces”: International Conflicts in Manchuria and Northeast Asia, 1850-1920 35 Introduction 35 Northeast Asia: Implications of Geography 36 International Relations of Northeast Asia, 1600-1920 41 China and Manchuria: From Empire to Nation? 49 Fengjin, Migration and Manchurian Society, 1636-1911 49 Manchuria and Mongolia after 1911 55 Regional Economy in Northeast Asia 57 Manchurian Economy before 1890 57 Reorienting the Manchurian Economy 59 The Competing Currencies 62 Concluding Remarks 64 Chapter 2 66 Manchuria under Zhang Zuolin and the Fengtian Clique 66 Introduction 66 The Larger Context: Chinese Politics after the Abolition of the Examination System 67 The Ascendancy of Zhang Zuolin and the Fengtian Clique 72 Exploiting the Circumstances 72 Enlisting Elite Support 74 From the Fengtian Clique to Anguojun: Zhang’s Military Supporters 79 Decision-making Mechanism of the Fengtian Clique 81 Military and Economic Build Up and Their Consequences 84 Regionalism and Relations with the Central Government 89 Japanese Connection Revisited 91 Becoming a National Leader: Zhang Zuolin’s Strife for Legitimacy and Political Power 93 Zhang’s Perception of the Nation’s Problems 93 Zhang’s Struggle for Political Legitimacy 97 Concluding Remarks 102 Chapter 3 104 The Fengtian Clique’s Strategies and Their Failure, 1925-1931 104 Phase I, January-December 1925 107 Overview 107 Responding to Political Vacuum in North China and the Soviet Design 109 The Anti-Fengtian War of 1925 117 Phase II, January-September 1926 120 The Fengtian Clique’s Attempt to Restore the Beijing Government 120 Improving the Internal and External Situation through Decisive Battle: The Battle of Nankou, 1926 124 Phase III, September 1926-June 1927 127 Seeking Peaceful Resolution through War: The Creation of the Anguojun 127 Increasing Japanese Pressure and Changing British Attitudes 132 The Failure in Henan and Its Impact 135 Phase IV, June 1927-June 1928 136 Responding to Defeats: The Generalissimo Government and Peace Talk with the KMT 136 Cracks in the Beijing-Mukden Regime 143 Manchuria Encircled: The Coming of a Japanese-Soviet Alliance 145 The Final Straw: Military Defeats in Late 1927 and Early 1928 147 Phase V, June 1928-September 1931 149 Strategic Inconsistency of the Fengtian Clique 149 The Decline of the Fengtian Clique’s Cohesion and Authority 151 Deteriorating Internal Condition and Geopolitical Situation 154 Concluding Remarks 156 Chapter 4 157 Military Dimension of the “Northern Expedition” 157 Introduction 157 Military Geography and the War in China in the 1920s 158 Warfare in China in the Mid-1920s 159 Anguojun, the National Pacification Army 163 Organization 166 Equipment and Supply 169 Training and Recruitment 170 Cohesion 171 Relations with the People 173 The Henan-Anhui-Jiangsu-Zhejiang Operations, Jan-Jun 1927 174 Disaster of Dispersal: The Shanghai-Nanjing-Anhui Operations 176 The Henan Campaign: Background 180 The Henan Campaign: Mobility, Firepower and Geography 182 The Battles of Xuzhou and Longtan, June-September 1927 190 Situation After the Henan Campaign 190 Operational Success, Strategic Dilemma: The Xuzhou Battle and Prelude to Longtan, Jun-Aug 1927 191 A Strategic Gamble Lost: The Battle of Longtan, Aug-Sep 1927 196 Tipping the Balance: The Autumn and Winter Campaigns of 1927 201 The Situation After Longtan 201 Wrong Priorities: The Shanxi Campaign, Sep-Dec 1927 202 The Second Henan Campaign, Oct-Dec 1927 206 Endgame: the Shanxi-Henan-Shandong Campaign of April 1928 209 Seeking the Decisive Battle 209 An Operational Disaster: The Southern Zhili-Shandong Campaign 211 Concluding Remarks 214 Chapter 5 216 The Manchurian Economy and the Northern Expedition, 1925-1928 216 Introduction 216 The Fall of the fengpiao and Its Effects, 1926-1928 218 Financial Limitations Faced by the Fengtian Clique 226 Limited Internal Revenue and High Expenditure 226 Decline of the Value of Silver 230 Japanese and Russian Presence and Their Financial Policies in Manchuria 232 Bankruptcy of the Central Government 234 The Fengtian Clique’s Attempts to Overcome Financial Difficulties 236 Issuing fengpiao 236 Increasing Tax and Manipulating Currencies 237 Issuing Bonds or Borrowing 240 Collecting the Customs Surtax 243 The Financial Collapse of the Fengtian Clique 247 Failure to Secure Shanghai and the Financial Difficulties of Beijing 247 The Succession Crisis and North-South Peace, Jan-June 1928 249 Concluding Remarks 252 Conclusion 254 Appendix 1: Literature Review 259 Appendix 2: A Note on the Sources 263 Appendix 3: Short Biographies of the Anguojun Figures 265 Appendix 4: Glossary 272 Appendix 5: Order of Battle of the Anguojun and the NRA, March 1927-April 1928 276 Bibliography 299 Index 332 "In War and Geopolitics in Interwar Manchuria Kwong Chi Man revisits the civil wars in China (1925-1928) from the perspective of the often-overlooked 'warlords, ' who fought against the joint forces of the Nationalist and Communist parties. In particular, this work focuses on Zhang Zuolin, the leader of the 'Fengtian Clique' who was sometimes seen as the representative of the Japanese interest in Manchuria. Using primary and secondary sources from China, Japan, the United Kingdom and the United States, this work tries to revisit the wars during the period from international, political, military, and economic-financial perspectives. It sheds new light on Zhang Zuolin's decision to fight against the Nationalists and the Communists and offers an alternative explanation to the Nationalists (temporary) victory by revealing the central importance of geopolitics in the civil wars in China during the interwar period"--Provided by publisher