War and American Foreign Policy : Justifications of Major Military Actions in the US

This book explores presidential justifications of every major American military conflict from the War of 1812 to the Second Gulf War. It generates two important findings. First, presidents employ a specific standard (the Necessity Standard) publicly to justify decisions to go to war, and privately to make decisions regarding war and peace. The Necessity Standard holds that major military force should be used if no viable alternatives are available to protect vital interests or discharge duties. Second, when addressing the Necessity Standard, presidents have disclosed military and security policies that vary considerably in their patience with alternatives and their definitions of vital interests and duties. The book concludes by characterizing wars, categorizing presidential policies, and outlining how the central position of the Necessity Standard in the American politics of war and peace might affect policymaking processes, conflict management, and the public's perceptions of wars and foreign policy. David J. Lorenzo is a professor in the College of International Affairs, National Chengchi University, Taiwan. He is the author of various books and other publications addressing political theory and issues of war and peace, including articles in the American Journal of Political Science, World Affairs, and Democracy and Security. . Timeline 5 Acknowledgments 8 Contents 9 Chapter 1: Discussions of War and the Necessity Standard 11 Introduction 11 Discussions of War, the Decision-Making Process, and the Necessity Standard 13 Presidential Discussions of War: Discursive Institutionalism and Justifications 18 Results 20 Layout of the Book 22 Chapter 2: The Necessity Standard, Arguments, and Norms 23 The Concept of Necessity 23 Differences with Similar Concepts 24 Necessity as a Standard 30 The Origins of the Necessity Standard 31 Suspicion of Standing Armies, and References to the Negative Impact of War on Freedom and Republican Institutions 31 The Duty to Use Military Force to Defend Freedoms, Sovereignty, Territory, and Trade 35 Arguments and Norms 39 Types of Arguments: How Proponents of War Construct Necessity 39 Realist Arguments 40 Nationalist Arguments 41 Values Arguments 42 Variations of the Democratic/Liberal Security Proposition 44 Identifying Norms 48 Conclusion 49 Chapter 3: The War of 1812 51 The Contexts of the War with Britain 51 President Madison on the War with Britain 53 Why War? Duties and Vital Interests 53 Why War Now? The Absence of Viable Alternatives 56 Congressional Applications of the Standard 59 The Standard in Related Policy Discussions 65 Madison’s Application of the Standard and Policy 69 Chapter 4: The War with Mexico 72 The Contexts of the War with Mexico 72 President Polk on the War with Mexico 74 Why War? Duties and Vital Interests 74 Why War Now? The Absence of Viable Alternatives 77 Congressional Applications of the Necessity Standard 81 The Standard and Related Policy Discussions 87 Polk’s Application of the Standard and Policy 92 Chapter 5: The War with Spain and the Insurgency in the Philippines 95 Contexts of the War with Spain 95 President McKinley on War with Spain and the Filipino Insurrection 99 Why War? Duties and Vital Interests 99 Why War Now? The Absence of Viable Alternatives 104 Congressional Applications of the Standard 106 The Necessity Standard and Related Policy Discussions 110 McKinley’s Application of the Standard and Policy 113 Chapter 6: The Great War 116 The Contexts of the Great War 116 President Wilson’s Case for Entering the Great War 119 Why War? Duties and Vital Interests 119 Why War Now? The Absence of Viable Alternatives 123 Congressional Applications of the Necessity Standard 127 The Necessity Standard and Related Discussions 130 Wilson’s Application of the Standard and Policy 135 Chapter 7: World War II 137 Background to the US Entry into World War II 137 President Roosevelt on Entering World War II 139 Why War? Duties and Vital Interests 139 Why War Now? The Absence of Viable Alternatives 144 Congressional Applications of the Necessity Standard 147 The Necessity Standard in Related Policy Discussions 149 Public Uses of the Standard 149 Use of the Standard Within the Roosevelt Administration 155 Roosevelt’s Application of the Standard and Policy 156 Chapter 8: Korea and the Early Cold War 159 Contexts of the War in Korea 159 President Truman on the War in Korea 161 Why War? Duties and Vital Interests 161 Why War Now? The Absence of Viable Alternatives 163 Congressional Applications of the Necessity Standard 166 The Necessity Standard in Related Discussions 168 Truman’s Application of the Necessity Standard and Policy 173 Chapter 9: The War in Vietnam 176 The Contexts of the Vietnam War 176 President Johnson on the Vietnam War 180 Why War? Duties and Vital Interests 180 Why War Now? The Absence of Viable Alternatives 184 Congressional Applications of the Necessity Standard 187 The Necessity Standard and Related Policy Discussions 190 Discussions Before the Vietnam War 190 Later Discussions of Vietnam 195 Johnson’s Application of the Standard and Policy 200 Chapter 10: The First Gulf War 202 The Contexts of the First Gulf War 202 President George H. W. Bush on the First Gulf War 205 Why War? Duties and Vital Interests 205 Why War Now? The Absence of Viable Alternatives 207 Congressional Applications of the Necessity Standard 209 The Necessity Standard in Related Policy Discussions 212 Discussions Between the Vietnam War and the First Gulf War 212 Discussions of the Gulf War 216 Bush’s Application of the Standard and Policy 220 Chapter 11: The Second Gulf War 222 The Contexts of the Second Gulf War 222 George W. Bush on the Second Gulf War 225 Why War? Duties and Vital Interests 225 Why War Now? The Absence of Viable Alternatives 229 Congressional Applications of the Necessity Standard 231 The Necessity Standard in Related Policy Discussions 239 Bush’s Application of the Standard and Policy 244 Chapter 12: The Necessity Standard in Recent Policy Discussions 247 Contexts 247 Policy Discussions During the Obama Administration 248 Policy Discussions During the Trump Administration 252 Chapter 13: The Necessity Standard and Discussions of War in the US 259 The Circumstances and Types of Wars, and Approaches to Security and Military Policies 260 When Should Wars Be Fought? 260 Accumulation of Events and Actions Alone 263 Immediate Casus Belli Alone 263 Accumulation of Events and Actions and a Discrete Casus Belli 263 Escalation of Threats 263 Typology of Wars: Why Should Wars Be Fought? 265 Wars of Trade 265 Wars of Reputation or Credibility 265 Wars Implicating World Order 265 Balance of Power Wars 266 Wars of Territorial Security 266 Wars of Humanitarianism 266 Wars of Freedom, Democracy, or Self-Determination 266 Types of National Security Strategies 267 Traditionalist 269 Regional Ordering 269 Wilsonian 270 Global Forward Defense 270 Global Forward Defense Revised 270 The Impact of the Necessity Standard on the Public and on the Policymaking Process 271 The Impact of the Necessity Standard on the Public 271 The Standard and the “Rally Around the Flag” Phenomenon 271 The Standard and the Bifurcation of the Public 272 The Standard and the “Impossible Presidency” 274 Possible Impacts on the Policymaking Process 274 The Presence of the Restrictive Side of the Standard—Avoidance and Delay 275 The Presence of the Imperative Side of the Standard—The Push for the Use of Military Force 276 Emphases on Particular Parts of the Crisis 278 Possible Effect on Responses to Conflict Management 280 Conclusion 281 Index 284