Wage Labour and Capital

Apply these eight learning principles for more effective teaching As educators in the ever-evolving landscape of higher education, we are continuously challenged to keep our courses effective, engaging, relevant, and inclusive. The updated and expanded second edition of How Learning Works can help! It incorporates the latest research, provides a wider range of strategies, and adds a new principle to your toolkit. Readers will find eight essential learning principles that distill the overwhelming research literature into: Real-world teaching and learning scenarios Examples that reflect a diverse set of teaching environments and learner populations 150 practical strategies you can apply to your teaching context With these practical, broadly applicable insights, you can: Understand why your successful teaching approaches work Solve common teaching and learning problems Adapt your teaching to new modalities (e.g., online, hybrid) and challenges Ground your innovations in evidence-based practice Based on research from cognitive psychology, developmental psychology, education, anthropology, and more—this book makes learning work ...for you and your students. Cover 1 Title Page 7 Copyright Page 8 Contents 11 List of Figures, Tables, and Exhibits 13 Foreword to the First Edition: Applying the Science of Learning to College Teaching 15 Acknowledgments 19 About the Authors 21 Preface to the Second Edition 25 Introduction: Bridging Learning Research and Teaching Practice 31 What Is Learning? 32 Our Principles of Learning 33 What Makes These Principles Powerful? 36 Intended Audiences 37 How to Read This Book 38 Note 38 Chapter 1 Why Do Students’ Identities and Stages of Development Matter for Learning? 39 What Is Going on in These Two Stories? 41 What Principle of Learning Is at Work Here? 42 What Does the Research Tell Us About Individual Differences? 44 Identity Characteristics 46 Levels of Development: Social Identity Development and Intellectual Development 51 Asset-Based Approaches 59 What Strategies Does the Research Suggest? 61 Strategies to Address Awareness and Self-Reflection 61 Strategies to Address Students’ Identities 63 Strategies to Address Developmental Stages 66 Strategies to Address Margin, Power, and Load 67 Summary 68 Chapter 2 How Does Students’ Prior Knowledge Affect TheirLearning? 69 What Is Going on in These Two Stories? 70 What Principle of Learning Is at Work Here? 71 What Does the Research Tell Us About Prior Knowledge? 73 Activating Prior Knowledge 73 Accurate But Insufficient Prior Knowledge 75 Inappropriate Prior Knowledge 76 Inaccurate Prior Knowledge 79 What Strategies Does the Research Suggest? 84 Strategies to Gauge the Extent and Nature of Students’ Prior Knowledge 84 Strategies to Activate Accurate Prior Knowledge 87 Strategies to Address Insufficient Prior Knowledge 89 Strategies to Help Students Recognize Inappropriate Prior Knowledge 90 Strategies to Correct Inaccurate Knowledge 91 Summary 93 Chapter 3 How Does the Way Students Organize Knowledge Affect Their Learning? 94 What Is Going on in These Two Stories? 95 What Principle of Learning Is at Work Here? 96 What Does the Research Tell Us About Knowledge Organization? 98 Knowledge Organization: Form Fits Function 99 Experts’ Versus Novices’ Knowledge Organizations: The Density of Connections 101 Experts’ Versus Students’ Knowledge Structures: The Nature of the Connections 105 What Strategies Does the Research Suggest? 108 Strategies to Reveal and Enhance Knowledge Organizations 109 Summary 112 Chapter 4 What Factors Motivate Students to Learn? 114 What Is Going on in These Two Stories? 115 What Principle of Learning Is at Work Here? 116 What Does the Research Tell Us About Motivation? 117 Goals 117 Value 121 Self-Determination 122 Expectancies 123 Adult Learners 126 How Perceptions of the Environment Affect the Interaction of Value and Expectancies 126 What Strategies Does the Research Suggest? 129 Strategies to Establish Value 130 Strategies That Help Students Build Positive Expectancies 131 Strategies That Address Value and Expectancies 134 Summary 135 Chapter 5 How Do Students Develop Mastery? 136 What Is Going on in These Two Stories? 137 What Principle of Learning Is at Work Here? 138 What Does the Research Tell Us About Mastery? 139 Expert Blind Spot 140 Acquiring Component Skills 143 Integrating Skills 145 Application 149 What Strategies Does the Research Suggest? 152 Strategies to Expose and Reinforce Component Skills 152 Strategies to Build Fluency and Facilitate Integration 155 Strategies to Facilitate Transfer 156 Summary 159 Chapter 6 What Kinds of Practice and Feedback Enhance Learning? 160 What Is Going on in These Two Stories? 161 What Principle of Learning Is at Work Here? 162 What Does the Research Tell Us About Practice? 165 Focusing Practice on a Specific Goal or Criterion 165 Identifying the Appropriate Level of Challenge for Practice 169 Accumulating Practice 172 What Does the Research Tell Us About Feedback? 175 Communicating Progress and Directing Subsequent Effort 177 Timing Feedback Appropriately 179 What Does the Research Tell Us About Active Learning? 181 What Strategies Does the Research Suggest? 184 Strategies That Address the Need for Goal-Directed Practice 184 Strategies That Address the Need for Targeted Feedback 187 Summary 190 Chapter 7 Why Does Course Climate Matter for Student Learning? 192 What Is Going On in These Two Stories? 194 What Principle of Learning Is at Work Here? 194 What Does the Research Tell Us About Course Climate? 195 Belonging 199 Tone 203 Content 204 Presence and Immediacy 205 What Strategies Does the Research Suggest? 207 Strategies to Foster a Strong Sense of Belonging 208 Strategies to Ensure That Course Tone Is Positive and Supportive 210 Strategies to Make Course Content More Inclusive 214 Strategies to Foster a Sense of Presence 215 Summary 216 Chapter 8 How Do Students Become Self-Directed Learners? 217 What Is Going on in These Two Stories? 218 What Principle of Learning Is at Work Here? 219 What Does the Research Tell Us About Metacognition? 220 Assessing the Task at Hand 222 Evaluating One’s Own Strengths and Weaknesses 222 Planning an Appropriate Approach 224 Applying Strategies and Monitoring Performance 225 Reflecting On and Adjusting One’s Approach 226 Beliefs About Intelligence and Learning 227 What Strategies Does the Research Suggest? 230 Strategies to Promote Assessing the Task at Hand 230 Strategies to Promote Evaluating One’s Own Strengths and Weaknesses 232 Strategies to Promote Planning an Appropriate Approach 233 Strategies to Promote Applying Strategies and Monitoring Performance 234 Strategies to Promote Reflecting On and Adjusting One’s Approach 236 Strategies to Promote Productive Beliefs About Intelligence and Learning 237 General Strategies to Promote Metacognition 240 Summary 241 Conclusion: Applying the Eight Principles to Ourselves 242 Appendix A What Are Instructor Self-Assessments/Reflections and How Can We Use Them? 249 Assumptions About Experience/Knowledge 249 Assumptions About Ability 250 Assumptions About Identity and Viewpoint 251 Assumptions Influencing Attributions 251 Appendix B What Are Ground Rules and How Can We Use Them? 253 Appendix C What Are Student Self-Assessments and How Can We Use Them? 256 Appendix D What Are Concept Maps and How Can We Use Them? 259 Appendix E What Are Rubrics and How Can We Use Them? 262 Appendix F What Are Learner Checklists and How Can We Use Them? 272 Appendix G What Are Learning Objectives and How Can We Use Them? 274 Appendix H What Are Active Learning Strategies and How Can We Use Them? 277 Appendix I What Are Reader Responses/Peer Reviews and How Can We Use Them? 280 Appendix J What Are Exam Wrappers and How Can We Use Them? 282 References 285 Index of Names 317 Index 329 EULA 339 "We have expanded from seven to eight principles, which has allowed us to delve more deeply into the social and emotional components of learning. A brand new chapter (Chapter 1) explores individual differences among learners, and the intersections of identities and backgrounds that shape how students enter, respond to, and shape the learning environment. A reworked chapter (Chapter 7) investigates more fully the ways that instructors can shape the climate of their courses to make students feel included or marginalized -- and the implications for learning and performance. Across all eight principles, we updated the research previously discussed while integrating new areas of research. Wherever possible, we applied a diversity, equity, and inclusion lens, exploring issues of power, identity, and belonging as they relate to teaching and learning. We have also referenced a broader range of institution types and student populations than in the previous edition, and incorporated case studies and strategies relevant to emerging educational technologies and online and hybrid learning modalities."-- Provided by publisher