چشم‌اندازهای شمال روم: هنر و هویت در بریتانیای شمالی روم

Visions of the Roman North: Art and Identity in Northern Roman Britain is the first book to present an analysis of art from the northern frontier zones of Roman Britain and to interpret the meaning and significance of this art in terms of the formation of a regional identity at this time. It argues that a distinct and vibrant visual culture flourished in the north during the Roman period, primarily due to its status as a heavily militarized frontier zone. Artworks from forts and the frontier-works of Hadrian's Wall and the Antonine Wall, along with funerary monuments from military and civilian cemeteries, are analysed and discussed. The book also explores religious sculpture depicting classical deities, Romano-British gods and goddesses and eastern deities such as Mithras in terms of the use of imagery in various belief systems and in terms of the establishment of individual and group identities. Visions of the Roman North: Art and Identity in Northern Roman Britain is the first book to present an analysis of art from the northern frontier zones of Roman Britain and to interpret the meaning and significance of this art in terms of the formation of a regional identity at this time. It argues that a distinct and vibrant visual culture flourished in the north during the Roman period, primarily due to its status as a heavily militarized frontier zone. Artworks from forts and the frontier-works of Hadrian’s Wall and the Antonine Wall, along with funerary monuments from military and civilian cemeteries, are analysed and discussed. The book also explores religious sculpture depicting classical deities, Romano-British gods and goddesses and eastern deities such as Mithras in terms of the use of imagery in various belief systems and in terms of the establishment of individual and group identities. Cover 1 Title Page 3 Copyright Page 4 Contents 5 List of Figures 7 Image Credits 14 Dedication 15 Acknowledgements 16 Preface 18 A Land Apart 21 Regional Character 28 Responses and Practices 31 In Praise of Sandstone 36 Quantifying Character 39 Figure 1 Group of Mithraic artworks on display in the Great North Museum: Hancock, Newcastle. (Photo: Author). 27 Figure 2 Statue of Mars from York. Late third to early fourth century AD. Yorkshire, Museum, York. (Photo: Image courtesy of York Museums Trust: http://yorkmuseumstrust.org.uk). 32 Figure 3 Tombstone of a Romano-British woman holding a fan from Carlisle. Second century AD. Tullie House Museum, Carlisle. (Photo: Copyright Tullie House Museum, Carlisle). 34 Figure 4 Tombstone of Vellibia Ertola from Corbridge, Northumberland. Later third century AD. Corbridge Site Museum. (Photo: Slide archive of the former School of Continuing Studies, Birmingham University). 35 Figure 5 Leg from a life-size bronze equestrian statue from Milsington, Roxburghshire, Scotland. Undated. National Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh. (Photo: Author). 39 Figure 6 Silver arm and plaque from a small statue of Victory from Tunshill, Lancashire. Second to fourth century AD. British Museum, London. (Photo: Copyright Trustees of the British Museum). 40 Figure 7 Mosaic panel depicting the She-Wolf with the twins Romulus and Remus from Aldborough, North Yorkshire. Late third or fourth century AD. Leeds City Museum. (Photo: Author). 42 Shadowplayers 46 Images of Authority 46 Figure 9 Silver gilt statuette of Commodus as Hercules from near Birdoswald, Cumbria. AD 191 or 192. British Museum, London. (Photo: Copyright Trustees of the British Museum). 48 Figure 8 Marble portrait head of man from Hawkshaw, Peeblesshire, Scotland. Trajanic. National Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh. (Photo: Author). 48 Figure 10 Twice life-size marble portrait head of Constantine the Great from York. c. AD 306. Yorkshire Museum, York. (Photo: Image courtesy of York Museums Trust: http://yorkmuseumstrust.org.uk). 50 Figure 11 Head pot of a woman, possibly the empress Julia Domna, from York. Early third century AD. Yorkshire, Museum, York. (Photo: Image courtesy of York Museums Trust: http://yorkmuseumstrust.org.uk). 53 Figure 12 Head pot of a man, possibly the emperor Caracalla, from York. Early third century AD. Yorkshire, Museum, York. (Photo: Image courtesy of York Museums Trust: http://yorkmuseumstrust.org.uk). 54 Figure 13 The Hutcheson Hill, Dunbartonshire legionary distance slab from the Antonine Wall, Scotland. Hunterian Museum, University of Glasgow. (Photo: Copyright Hunterian, University of Glasgow). 56 Gods and Mortals 58 A Sacred Landscape 58 Figure 14 Red jasper intaglio of a cock pulling a cart driven by a mouse from Aldborough, North Yorkshire. Second half of second century AD. Aldborough Site Museum. (Photo: Historic England). 60 Systems and Practices 62 Figure 15 Relief of Mercury from Newcastle upon Tyne. Second or third century AD. Great North Museum: Hancock, Newcastle. (Photo: Author). 63 Figure 16 Fragment of a commemorative relief of the Sixth Legion from Croy Hill, Dunbartonshire, Scotland, depicting Venus inside a classical building. Antonine. National Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh. (Photo: Author). 64 Private Devotion 66 Personal Spaces 68 The Power of Place 70 Figure 18 Relief of a smith-god, Vulcan, or a smith from York. Second or third century AD. Yorkshire Museum, York. (Photo: Image courtesy of York Museums Trust: http://yorkmuseumstrust.org.uk). 71 Figure 17 A smith-god greyware pottery vessel from Chester-le-Street, County Durham. Third century AD. Bowes Museum, Barnard Castle. (Photo: Jeremy Evans). 71 Figure 19 and 20 Head of statue of Antenociticus from Benwell, Northumberland. Second century AD. Great North Museum: Hancock, Newcastle. (Photo: Author). 72 Figure 21 Head of a male Romano-Celtic deity from Binchester, County Durham. Third or fourth century AD. Presently at Durham University. (Photo: David Petts, Durham University). 74 Figure 22 Statue of Brigantia from Birrens, Dumfriesshire, Scotland. Hadrianic to Antonine. National Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh. (Photo: David Breeze). 74 Curing and Healing 77 Figure 23 Silver plaque dedicated to the god Cocidius from Bewcastle, Cumbria. Second or third century AD. Tullie House Museum, Carlisle. (Photo: Copyright Tullie House Museum, Carlisle). 77 Figure 24 Hunter deity from Housesteads, Northumberland. Late second or early third century AD. Great North Museum: Hancock, Newcastle. (Photo: Author). 78 Figure 25 Altar dedicated to Aesculapius and Salus from Binchester, County Durham. Mid to late second century AD. Fulling Mill Museum, Durham University. Illustration from R.E. Hooppell’s Vinovia. (Photo: Slide archive of the former School of Continuing S 79 Figure 26 Dedicatory stele or altar to the local goddess Coventina, from Coventina’s Well, Carrawburgh, Northumberland. Third century AD. Chesters Site Museum. (Photo: Andrew Curtis). 80 Figure 27 Relief of three water nymphs from Coventina’s Well, Carrawburgh, Northumberland. Second or third century AD. Chesters Site Museum. (Photo: Carole Raddato). 82 Figure 28 Relief of Venus and attendant nymphs from High Rochester, Northumberland. Second or third century AD. Great North Museum: Hancock, Newcastle. (Photo: Author). 82 The Genii Cucullati and the Matres 83 Figure 29 Relief of the genii cucullati from Housesteads, Northumberland. Second quarter of the third century AD. Housesteads Site Museum. (Photo: Slide archive of the former School of Continuing Studies, Birmingham University). 84 Belief and Identity 85 Figure 31 Relief of Fortuna from Castlecary, Stirlingshire, Scotland. Antonine. Hunterian Museum, University of Glasgow. (Photo: Author). 87 Figure 30 Altar to Fortuna from Chesters, Northumberland. Third century AD. Chesters Site Museum. (Photo: Carole Raddato). 87 Artifice and Transcendence 90 Eastern Deities 90 The Hand of God 92 Figure 32 Torso of a statue of Juno Regina from Chesters, Northumberland. Early third century AD. Chesters Site Museum. (Photo: Carole Raddato). 93 Figure 33 An altar to Jupiter Dolichenus from Vindolanda. Third century AD. Vindolanda Museum. (Photo: the Vindolanda Trust). 94 Figure 34 Bronze hand of Jupiter Dolichenus from Vindolanda. Third century AD. Vindolanda Museum. (Photo: the Vindolanda Trust). 94 Figure 35 Reliefs, including a depiction of the Dioscuri, from the Dolichenum at Corbridge, Northumberland. Third century AD. Corbridge Site Museum. (Photo: Studio HB). 95 Figure 36 Detail of the relief depicting the Dioscuri from the Dolichenum at Corbridge, Northumberland. Third century AD. Corbridge Site Museum. (Photo: Slide archive of the former School of Continuing Studies, Birmingham University). 96 Figure 37 Relief of the god Sol from the Dolichenum at Corbridge, Northumberland. Third century AD. Corbridge Site Museum. 3D model made from 34 photographs, using Agisoft Photoscan. (Photo: Deborah Mayers). 97 Figure 38 Reconstruction of a dedicatory slab to Jupiter Dolichenus, based on two original fragments, from Croy Hill, Dunbartonshire, Scotland. Antonine. National Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh. (Photo: Author). 97 Mithras, the Bull-Slayer 98 Figure 40 Relief depicting the birth of Mithras from Housesteads, Northumberland. Third century AD. Great North Museum: Hancock, Newcastle. (Photo: Author). 99 Figure 39 Altar to Sol-Mithras from Carrawburgh, Northumberland. Third century AD. Great North Museum: Hancock, Newcastle. (Photo: Author). 99 Figure 41 Relief of the Mithraic tauroctony from Housesteads, Northumberland. Early third century AD. Great North Museum: Hancock, Newcastle. (Photo: Author). 100 Figure 42 The Sol altar from Inveresk, East Lothian, Scotland. Mid-second century AD. National Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh. Laser scan image. (Photo: AOC Archaeology). 102 Figure 43 The Seasons relief on the Sol altar from Inveresk, East Lothian, Scotland. Mid-second century AD. National Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh. (Photo: National Museums of Scotland). 102 Northern Christians 106 Figure 44 Decorated bronze belt-plate and buckle with images of peacocks and a tree-of-life from Stanwick, North Yorkshire. Fourth to fifth century AD. British Museum, London. (Photo: Copyright Trustees of the British Museum). 108 The Good Soldier 112 Seeing Yourself 112 Figure 45 Relief of Roman legionaries from Croy Hill, Dunbartonshire, Scotland. Antonine. National Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh. (Photo: Author). 113 Figure 46 Painted cast of the tombstone of the optio Caecilius Avitus from Chester. Mid to second half of third century AD. Grosvenor Museum, Chester. (Photo: Author). 114 Figure 47 Tombstone of the signifer Lucius Duccius Rufinus from York. AD 72-122. Yorkshire, Museum, York. (Photo: Image courtesy of York Museums Trust: http://yorkmuseumstrust.org.uk). 115 Figure 48 Tombstone of Flavinus, an auxiliary cavalryman from Corbridge, Northumberland. Before AD 98. Now in Hexham Abbey. (Photo: Slide archive of the former School of Continuing Studies, Birmingham University). 116 Figure 49 Tombstone of Insus, a Roman auxiliary cavalryman from Lancaster, Lancashire. c. AD 75-120. Lancaster City Museum. Coloured reconstruction drawing by Simon James. (Photo: Simon James). 116 Figure 50 Tombstone of Marcus Aurelius Nepos, centurion, and his wife from Chester. Early third century AD. Grosvenor Museum, Chester. (Photo: Author). 118 Figure 51 The Corbridge lion. Early third century AD. Corbridge Site Museum. 3D model made from 177 photographs, using Agisoft Photoscan. (Photo: Deborah Mayers). 118 Figures 52 and 53 The Cramond Lioness from Cramond, Edinburgh, Scotland. Mid-second to early third century AD. National Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh. (Photo: Author). 120 What Makes a Man? 121 Figure 54 Statue of Mars from Balmuildy, Lanarkshire, Scotland. Antonine. Hunterian Museum, University of Glasgow. (Photo: Author). 122 Figure 55 Relief of Hercules battling the Lernean Hydra from Corbridge, Northumberland. Early third century AD. Corbridge Site Museum. (Photo: Slide archive of the former School of Continuing Studies, Birmingham University). 122 Figure 56 Dedication slab with images of Mars and Hercules from High Rochester, Northumberland. Antonine. Great North Museum: Hancock, Newcastle. (Photo: Author). 122 Figure 57 Statue of armless, local martial deity from Auchendavy, Dunbartonshire, Scotland. Antonine. Hunterian Museum, University of Glasgow. (Photo: Author). 123 Figure 58 Highly-decorated bronze shield plate and boss from the River Tyne near its mouth. Early second century AD. British Museum, London. (Photo: Copyright Trustees of the British Museum). 124 Figure 59 Decorated cavalry sports helmet from Ribchester, Lancashire. Late first to early second century AD. British Museum, London. (Photo: Copyright Trustees of the British Museum). 124 Figure 60 Glass vessel decorated with images of gladiators from Vindolanda. Second to third century AD. Vindolanda Museum. (Photo: the Vindolanda Trust). 127 Figure 61 Samian sherd with arena scene decoration from Binchester, County Durham. AD 90-110. Bowes Museum, Barnard Castle. (Photo: Author). 127 Figure 62 Ivory knife handle in the form of a cupid dressed as a gladiator from South Shields. Second to third century AD. Great North Museum: Hancock, Newcastle. (Photo: Great North Museum: Hancock. From the collection of the Society of Antiquaries of Ne 128 Figure 63 Cornelian intaglio from York, depicting Ajax manhandling Cassandra and seizing the Palladium of Troy. First century AD. Yorkshire Museum, York. (Photo: Image courtesy of York Museums Trust: http://yorkmuseumstrust.org.uk). 128 A Frontier Mentality 130 Building an Image 132 Figure 64 The Bridgeness distance stone from the Antonine Wall, Scotland: a colourised digital reconstruction by Lars Hummelshoj. From Bridgeness, West Lothian. National Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh. (Photo: Louisa Campbell). 133 Power and Potency 134 Enemies of Rome 136 Figure 65 The Bridgeness, West Lothian legionary distance slab from the Antonine Wall, Scotland. National Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh. (Photo: Author). 136 Figure 66 Close-up detail of the beheading scene on the The Bridgeness, West Lothian legionary distance slab from the Antonine Wall, Scotland. National Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh. (Photo: Author). 137 Figure 67 Close-up detail of the sacrifice scene on the The Bridgeness, West Lothian legionary distance slab from the Antonine Wall, Scotland. National Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh. (Photo: Author). 137 Viewers 138 Figure 68 The Ferrydyke (Old Kilpatrick), Dunbartonshire legionary distance slab from the Antonine Wall, Scotland. Hunterian Museum, University of Glasgow. (Photo: Author). 139 Figure 69 The Summerston Farm, Lanarkshire legionary distance slab from the Antonine Wall, Scotland. Hunterian Museum, University of Glasgow. (Photo: Author). 140 Figure 70 The Hag Knowe, Dunbartonshire legionary distance slab from the Antonine Wall, Scotland. Hunterian Museum, University of Glasgow. (Photo: Copyright Hunterian, University of Glasgow). 140 The Dignity of Labour 141 Figure 71 The Braidfield, Dunbartonshire legionary distance slab from the Antonine Wall, Scotland. Hunterian Museum, University of Glasgow. (Photo: Author). 142 Conceptualising the Frontier 143 Figure 72 The Rudge Cup. Second century AD. Alnwick Castle. (Photo: Tullie House Museum, Carlisle). 144 Figure 73 The Amiens Patera. Second century AD. Musée de Picardie, Amiens, France. (Photo: David Breeze). 144 Figure 74 The Ilam or Staffordshire Moorlands Pan. Hadrianic. Potteries Museum, Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire. (Photo: David Breeze). 144 Afterlife 147 Ghosts in the Present 150 Image and Identity 152 Self and Identity 152 Figure 75 The tombstone of Callimorphus and Serapion from Chester. Second quarter of the third century AD. Grosvenor Museum, Chester. (Photo: Author). 154 Figure 76 The tombstone of Victor from South Shields. Mid to late second century AD. Arbeia Roman Fort and Museum, South Shields. (Photo: Tyne and Wear Archives and Museums). 154 Figure 77 Tombstone of Julia Velva from York. Mid-third century AD. Yorkshire, Museum, York. (Photo: Image courtesy of York Museums Trust: http://yorkmuseumstrust.org.uk). 155 Figure 78 The tombstone of Regina from South Shields. Late second century AD. Arbeia Roman Fort and Museum, South Shields. (Photo: Tyne and Wear Archives and Museums). 156 Figure 79 Tombstone of a woman from Ilkley, West Yorkshire. Late first or early second century AD. Manor House Museum, Ilkley. (Photo: Ilkley Manor House Trust). 159 Figure 80 Tombstone of Aurelia Aureliana from Carlisle. Mid-third century AD. Great North Museum: Hancock, Newcastle. (Photo: Author). 159 Figure 81 Tombstone of Flavia Augustina from York, depicting family group. Mid-third century AD. Yorkshire Museum, York. (Photo: Image courtesy of York Museums Trust: http://yorkmuseumstrust.org.uk). 160 Figure 82 Tombstone of a man holding flowers from York. Late first to early second century AD. Yorkshire Museum, York. (Photo: Image courtesy of York Museums Trust: http://yorkmuseumstrust.org.uk). 160 Figure 83 Tombstone of a family from Ilkley, West Yorkshire. Mid-third century AD. Manor House Museum, Ilkley. (Photo: Ilkley Manor House Trust). 161 Figure 84 Head pot of a woman from Piercebridge, County Durham. Early third century AD. Bowes Museum, Barnard Castle. (Photo: Author). 161 Self and Materiality 162 Figure 85 Jet amulet pendant or gorgoneion decorated with an apotropaic head of Medusa from York. Third to fourth century AD. Yorkshire, Museum, York. (Photo: Image courtesy of York Museums Trust: http://yorkmuseumstrust.org.uk). 165 Figure 86 Carved jet medallion carrying family portrait group of a man and a woman from York. Fourth century AD. Yorkshire Museum, York. (Photo: Image courtesy of York Museums Trust: http://yorkmuseumstrust.org.uk). 165 Figure 87 Small carved jet bear from Malton, North Yorkshire. Probably AD 220s. Malton Museum. (Photo: Reproduced by kind permission of Malton Museum CIO. All rights reserved). 166 Figure 88 Jet knife handle in the form of a dog from Binchester, County Durham. Late third, but probably fourth, century AD. Private collection. (Photo: Author). 166 Figure 89 Carved amber figure of an actor from Scotch Corner, North Yorkshire. First century AD. Yorkshire Museum, York. (Photo: Northern Archaeological Associates). 169 Sexual Identities 170 Figure 90 An Indian Sardonyx cameo of a bear from South Shields, Northumberland. Early third century AD. Great North Museum: Hancock, Northumberland. (Photo: Copyright Joanne Ball). 170 Figure 91 Stone carved with an ejaculating phallus from Catterick, North Yorkshire. Reused in the third or fourth century AD. Yorkshire Museum, York. (Photo: By Damien Ronan. Copyright Northern Archaeological Associates). 173 Remembering and Forgetting 176 Context and Change 176 Figure 92 Copper alloy figurine of a ram from the River Tees at Piercebridge, County Durham. Second or third century AD. British Museum, London. (Photo: Philippa Walton). 180 Figure 93 Altar to T. Attius Tutor from Maryport, Cumbria. Second or third century AD. Senhouse Roman Museum, Maryport. (Photo: Ian Haynes and the Senhouse Roman Museum). 181 Figure 94 The silver Corbridge lanx from the River Tyne near Corbridge, Northumberland. Fourth century AD. British Museum, London. (Photo: Copyright Trustees of the British Museum). 181 Figure 95 The recognition of Ulysses/Odysseus, a scene on a silver vessel fragment from Traprain Law, East Lothian, Scotland. Late fourth to fifth century AD. National Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh. (Photo: National Museums of Scotland). 183 Soft Power 185 A Landscape of Possibilities 189 Locale 189 Figure 96 A bronze of a ploughing team from Piercebridge, County Durham. First-third century AD. British Museum, London. (Photo: Copyright Trustees of the British Museum). 190 Figure 97 Decorated silver patera handle from Capheaton, Northumberland. Second to third century AD. British Museum, London. (Photo: Copyright Trustees of the British Museum). 195 Figure 100 Tombstone of an optio from Chester; detail of image of a building or funerary garden. Early third century AD. Grosvenor Museum, Chester. (Photo: Author). 196 Figure 98 The Rose Hill relief, from Gilsland, Cumbria, possibly depicting Arthur’s O’on, pictured on a nineteenth century woodcut by F.W. Fairholt. Original, now-weathered stone in a private collection at Castletown House, Rockcliffe, Cumbria. (Photo: Da 196 Figure 99 Detail on an altar to Disciplina from Birrens, Dumfriesshire, Scotland. Antonine. National Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh. (Photo: Author). 196 Figure 101 Statue of a river god from Chesters, Northumberland. Second or third century AD. Chesters Museum. (Photo: John Boyd-Brent). 200 Figure 102 Relief of Neptune and Nymphs from Housesteads. Second or third century AD. Great North Museum: Hancock, Newcastle. (Photo: Author). 201 Figure 103 Altar to Neptune from the River Tyne at Newcastle. Possibly Hadrianic, or later. Great North Museum: Hancock, Newcastle. (Photo: Author). 202 Figure 104 Altar to Oceanus from the River Tyne at Newcastle. Possibly Hadrianic, or later. Great North Museum: Hancock, Newcastle. (Photo: Author). 202 A Landscape of Memory 203 Written on the Land 207 Figure 105 Graffito bust and inscription on The Written Rock of Gelt, Gelt Forest Quarry, Northumberland. 3D scan through Artec EVA. (Photo: Jon Allison). 208 Figure 106 Graffito bust and inscription on The Written Rock of Gelt, Gelt Forest Quarry, Northumberland. Constructed from SfM. (Photo: Jon Allison, courtesy of Historic England). 208 Defining Identity 209 Figure 107 Screen-grab of the gallus illustration by Judith Dobie on the front cover of Pete Wilson’s Cataractonium Report volume 2 (Photo: Author). 210 Visions of the North 211 Further Reading 214 Art and Objects 214 CSIR Volumes Covering Northern Britain 214 RIB-The Roman Inscriptions of Britain 214 The Roman North In General 218 Further Reading 214 Art and Objects 214 CSIR Volumes Covering Northern Britain 214 RIB-The Roman Inscriptions of Britain 214 The Roman North In General 218 Index 221 Back cover 237 Roman art,Roman Britain,identity,images,north. __Visions of the Roman North: Art and Identity in Northern Roman Britain__