Viral, Parasitic, Bacterial, and Fungal Infections : Antimicrobial, Host Defense, and Therapeutic Strategies

Viral, Parasitic, Bacterial, and Fungal Infections: Antimicrobial, Host Defense, and Therapeutic Strategies highlight diverse types of infections, including viral, bacterial, parasitic, fungal, and the therapeutic efficacy of antibiotics, antivirals, antifungals and other medications, nutraceuticals, and phytotherapeutics. This book addresses the molecular, pathophysiological, and cellular pathways involved in the process of infection. It also examines the host defense mechanisms modulated by innate and adaptive immunity. The book starts off with an introduction, which includes etiology, pathophysiology, and diagnosis of infections. It then goes on to cover a wide spectrum of salient features involved in viral, bacterial, parasitic, and fungal infections and effective therapeutic strategies. In addition, there is a complete section of eight chapters elaborating the detailed aspects of COVID-19 infections, Mucormycosis, Omicron, and strategic vaccines and therapeutics. The book further goes on to discuss novel antibiotics, vaccines, bromhexine, boron compounds, phytotherapeutics, and aspects on boosting immune competence. Contributed by experts in the fields of viral, parasitic, bacterial, and fungal infections, the book comprehensively details the various types of infections such as herpes and COVID-19, their molecular mechanisms, and treatment strategies for those engaged in the research of infectious diseases. Details the pathophysiology of various classes of infections Examines mechanisms of pathogenesis, immunity, and therapeutics in bacterial, viral, and eukaryotic infectious diseases Discusses various aspects on herpes, COVID-19 infections, Mucormycosis, Omicron, vaccines, and therapeutics Covers the salient features on zoonosis, prion disease, and diabetic foot infections Provides therapeutic strategies of using new antibiotics, vaccines, bromhexine, boron compounds, structurally diverse phytotherapeutics, immune enhancers, and other modalities for treating infections Front Cover Viral, Parasitic, Bacterial, and Fungal Infections: Antimicrobial, Host Defense, and Therapeutic Strategies Copyright Dedication Contents Contributors Preface Part I: Introduction Chapter 1: Clinical applications of molecular diagnosis in infectious diseases Introduction Bacteria Clinical applicability Resistance testing Viruses Clinical applicability Resistance testing Monitoring response to treatment Fungi Clinical applicability Resistance testing Mycobacteria Clinical applicability Resistance testing Response to treatment Parasites Clinical applicability Resistance testing Monitoring response to treatment Molecular diagnostics in special circumstances Infection control Antimicrobial stewardship Global health Conclusion References Chapter 2: Airway mucus, infection, and therapeutic strategies Introduction The mucous layer Mucins Mucin modifications Cystic fibrosis Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease Asthma COVID-19 Respiratory pathogens and mucus Bacterial strategies Viral strategies Fungal strategies Therapies Conclusion References Chapter 3: From plants to animals: A study of phytopathogenic infections Introduction Nature and significance of identifying phytopathogens Phytonoses: Phytopathogenic infections jump to humans Bacterial infections from plants Viral infections from plants Fungal infections from plants Cross infections (human uveitis mycoplasma-like organisms) (MLO) Indoor plants cause allergies Prevention, treatment, and cure of phytopathogens and phytonoses Prevention Temperature, relative humidity, and soil Good agricultural practices (GAP) Treatment Agro-technical measures Chemical control Biological control Genetic engineering techniques Cure Conclusion References Chapter 4: Epigenetic basis of infectious diseases Introduction Epigenetic regulations Infection and host tissue epigenetics Epigenetic changes directed by virus-induced infections Epigentics basis of coronavirus infection Epigenetic changes directed by bacterial infections Epigenetic changes directed by (protozoa) parasites-induced infections Epigenetic basis of sepsis Therapeutic strategies targeting epigenetics for infection Conclusion References Chapter 5: Burden of infectious diseases and strategies of prevention Introduction Burden and challenges Influenza Tuberculosis TB and COVID Human immunodeficiency virus HIV and COVID-19 Public health strategies to prevent spread of infectious diseases Immunization National public health countermeasures Surveillance Screening and containment Other social measures United States of America specific efforts Global health security strategy Strategic national stockpile International countermeasures Lessons learned from epidemic and pandemics Moving forward References Chapter 6: Primary factors that determine the severity of various infections and effective nutraceutical intervention str ... Introduction Prominent infectious disorders COVID 19: An overview Mechanism and consequences of COVID-19 viral infection Critical features of COVID-19 infections and therapeutic strategy The herpes virus Herpes viral activation: An opportunistic biological resident Candida albicans (Yeast Infections) Healthy diet, gut microbiome, and immune competence Roles of nutraceuticals and functional foods in enhancing immune competence Concluding remarks References Chapter 7: Infection and obesity: Two sides of the same coin Introduction Influence of obesity on infections Obesity, impaired immune dysfunction, and infections Obesity and innate immunity dysfunction Obesity and adaptive immunity dysfunction Obesity and viral infections Influence of infections on obesity Infectious microbes and obesity Canine distemper virus Borna disease virus Scrapie agents Rous-associated virus type 7 Gut microbiota Herpesviridae Chlamydia trachomatis SMAM-1 Adenovirus-36 Conclusions References Chapter 8: Infections in liver transplantation Introduction Risk factors for infection after liver transplant Exposures Recipient-derived exposures Donor-derived infections Surgery Hospital and community acquired Net state of immunosuppression Infection timeline Early phase: 1st month after transplant Intermediate phase: 1-6months after transplant Late phase: Greater than 6 months after transplant Pathogen specific infections Bacterial infection Surgical site infection Intra-abdominal infection Bloodstream infection Pneumonia Drug resistant organisms Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) Vancomycin resistant Enterococci (VRE) Extended spectrum beta-lactamase-producing (ESBL) Enterobacteriaceae Viral infection Cytomegalovirus (CMV) Epstein Barr virus (EBV) Herpes simplex virus (HSV) Hepatitis C virus (HCV) Fungal infections Candida Pneumocystis jirovecii (formerly Pneumocystis carinii) Parasites Strongyloides stercoralis Conclusion References Chapter 9: An overview of antimicrobial peptides Introduction Source, structure, properties, and functions of AMPs Classification of AMPs Classification of AMPs based on activity Antibacterial peptides Antiviral peptides Antifungal peptides Anticancer peptides Classification of AMPs based on amino acid-rich species Proline-rich peptides (PrAMPs) Tryptophan- and arginine-rich antimicrobial peptides Histidine-rich peptides Glycine-rich antimicrobial peptides Classification based on antimicrobial peptide structures Mechanism of action of AMPs Applications of antimicrobial peptides Conclusion References Chapter 10: Antimicrobial peptides: A possible strategy to combat ESKAPE pathogens Introduction Epigenetic regulation of hosts by persistent pathogens Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) Properties of AMPs for systemic clearance of MDR pathogens Conclusion and future perspectives References Part II: Viral infections and therapeutics Chapter 11: A treatise on Ebola virus Introduction Microbiology and virology of Ebola virus Epidemiology Mode of transmission Ebola virus disease case definition Clinical features of Ebola virus infection First initial stage Second stage Third stage Laboratory investigations There are some nonspecific laboratory findings Ebola-specific tests Prevention and treatment Symptomatic and supportive treatment Based on WHO standards, a simple guidance for symptomatic treatment of EVD [59] Specific treatment Available Ebola vaccine Ebola survivors Conclusion References Chapter 12: Herpes virus and its manifestations Introduction Types Viral structure, infection, and replication HHV-1 and HHV-2 Pathophysiology Treatment and prevention HHV-3 Pathophysiology Treatment and prevention HHV-4 Pathophysiology Treatment and prevention HHV-5 Pathophysiology Treatment and prevention HHV-6 Pathophysiology Treatment and prevention HHV-7 Pathophysiology Treatment and prevention HHV-8 Pathophysiology Treatment and prevention Summary References Chapter 13: Swine flu - An overview Introduction Pathophysiology Histopathology of lung Structure Life cycle of H1N1 virus Immunity to influenza virus Diagnostic tool Treatment of influenza virus Flu vaccination Conclusion References Chapter 14: Avian influenza virus: Prevalence infection and therapy Introduction Genomic structure of virus Types and subtypes of avian influenza virus Transmission to the host Pathogenesis Pathogenesis in birds Pathogenesis in human Economic importance Therapeutic strategies Conclusion References Chapter 15: Mosquito defense mechanisms against medically important arboviruses: The vector-pathogen interface Emerging and reemerging arboviral diseases Antiviral strategies in mosquitoes Antiviral immunity RNA interference (RNAi) pathways Toll, IMD, and JAK-STAT pathways Toll and IMD pathways JAK-STAT pathway Symbiotic microorganisms Virus defenses mediated by nutrition Antiviral mechanism in hemolymph Mechanisms to prevent viral propagation in salivary gland The antiviral response of mosquitoes mediated by fat bodies Arbovirus infection restrictions by neurons Autophagy Concluding remark References Chapter 16: Influenza update Introduction Pathophysiology Virology Epidemiology and public health Clinical presentation Complications Differential diagnosis Laboratory diagnosis Treatment Prevention Current and future research Conclusion References Chapter 17: Measles: The road to eradication Introduction Epidemiology Virology and immunology Clinical manifestations Diagnosis Treatment Complications Prevention Current research and future eradication Conclusion References Chapter 18: A paradigm of ZIKA virus infection Introduction Epidemiology of ZIKV Virology of the ZIKV Life cycle of ZIKV Transmission of ZIKV Mosquito borne transmission Nonmosquito transmission Pathogenesis of ZIKV Mechanism of ZIKV Replicative cycle Animal studies Symptoms Complications of ZIKV disease Diagnosis of ZIKV Virus isolation Antigen detection Molecular assay Serological assays ZIKV diagnosis in endemic countries Diagnosis of travelers Treatment Developments in ZIKV treatment Prevention and management References Further reading Chapter 19: Viral infection and its management Introduction Entry into the host cell Replication of viral genetic material Regulation of host-cell metabolism Assembly of progeny virions Viral egress Breaching the first barrier: Viral entry into host cells Stopping viruses at the door: Viral entry as therapeutic target Establishing infection: Replication of viral genetic material Replication of DNA viruses Replication of RNA viruses Viral replication compartments Stopping the juggernaut: Viral replication as therapeutic target Viral master manipulators: Regulation of host cell metabolism Early/late-phase gene expression in DNA viruses Regulation of cellular translational control Evading the host innate immune system RNA sensors and the innate immune system Proxy wars: Targeting viral modulation of host cell metabolism therapeutically Moving out to conquer: Viral egress Closing the door: Targeting viral egress therapeutically Conclusion Glossary of terms References Chapter 20: Momordica charantia(bitter melon): Potent antiviral efficacy and significant benefits against herpes virus Introduction Bitter melon/Momordica charantia profile Origin and distribution Botanical description Cultivation and nutritional composition Bioactive components of M. charantia Significant benefit of bitter melon in viral infections Phytochemicals possessing antiviral activity Ribosomal inactivating proteins (RIPs) of bitter melon Momordin MAP30 Momorcharin Alpha and beta-momorcharin (α and β MMC) M. charantia lectin (MCL) Saponins Bitter melon with specific antiviral activities Anti-HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) activity Anti-hepatitis B virus (HBV) activity Anti-influenza activity Potent anti-HSV (herpes simplex virus) activity Herpes simplex virus MAP 30 exhibits anti-HSV activity by specifically inhibiting replication and assembly of viral progeny Other therapeutic activities of bitter melon Antimicrobial activity and antihelminthic activity Conclusion References Part III: COVID-19, mucormycosis, omicron, and strategic therapeutics Chapter 21: An overview of COVID-19: An emerging infectious disease Introduction Pathogen of pandemic potential Causative organism Origin of the virus Natural selection in an animal host before zoonotic transfer Natural selection in humans following zoonotic transfer Selection during the passage Global scenario-COVID-19 Mode of transmission Contact and droplet transmission Airborne transmission Fomite transmission Transmission rate Transmission-From humans to animals Transmission of disease among the animals Risk factors for severe COVID-19 [27,28] Clinical features Complications Clinical manifestations in pets Surveillance strategies [33] Suspected case definition Probable case definition Confirmed case of COVID-19 Surveillance in community Surveillance at the primary care level Hospital-based surveillance Sentinel site surveillance Closed settings Healthcare-associated surveillance Mortality surveillance Laboratory testing data surveillance Event-based surveillance (EBS) Telephone hotlines Environmental surveillance Serological surveillance Surveillance among animals Laboratory diagnosis of COVID-19 Research and development of medicine and vaccine for COVID-19 COVID-19 vaccines Therapeutics for COVID-19 Ivermectin Hydroxychloroquine Lopinavir/ritonavir Remdesivir Systemic corticosteroids Infection prevention and control of healthcare personnel Infection prevention and control Personal protective equipment Preventive measures Nonpharmaceutical interventions (NPIs) Social distancing Closures Recommended steps for risk adjusted nonpharmaceutical interventions Other strategies Contact tracing Digital technologies Scale-up of testing Legal steps Ethical principles Home quarantine Definition of contact Preparedness of health system against COVID-19 National legislation and financing IHR coordination and communication Zoonotic events and the human-animal interface National laboratory system Surveillance Human resources National health emergency framework Health service provision Case management and continuity of essential services Infection prevention and control Risk communication and community engagement Points of entry Medical counter measures-Logistics, procurement, and supply management Conclusion References Chapter 22: Impacts of viral pathogenesis and vaccine immunization on the host humoral immune response in SARS-CoV-2 and ... Introduction Structural organization of the virus Phases of SARS-CoV-2 life cycle Activation of viral spike glycoprotein by host proteases Binding of S protein with ACE2 receptor Fusion of SARS-CoV-2 with host cell membrane Replication of SARS-CoV-2 genome Assembly and release of the progeny virus particles Immune escape of SARS-CoV-2 and variants Lymphopenia: Escaping T-cell immunity Regulation of CD8+ T cell responses in COVID-19 Regulation of CD4+ T cell responses in COVID-19 Regulation of T follicular helper (Tfh) cells B cell responses against SARS-CoV-2 variants Current status of the vaccine performances against emerging SARS-CoV-2 VOCs Vaccine-induced T-cell immunity against emerging SARS-CoV-2 VOCs Vaccine-induced B-cell responses against emerging SARS-CoV-2 VOCs Concluding remarks and future scope References Chapter 23: Gut microbiome and COVID-19 Introduction Gut microbiome Factors modulating gut microbiome Probiotics Prebiotics SCFA and BCAA Short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) and branched chain fatty acids (BCAA) Dysbiosis and eubiosis Enterotypes SARS-CoV-2 and the variants Omicron variant COVID-19 Effect of COVID-19 on gut microbiome Gut microbiome influencing severity of COVID Gastrointestinal diseases, dysbiosis, and COVID-19 Gut microbiome, COVID-19 and cytokine storm Gut microbiome, COVID-19, and interferon Gut-lung axis and COVID-19 Obesity, dysbiosis, and COVID-19 Probiotics in the treatment of COVID-19 Long Covid Conclusions References Chapter 24: Human gut virome and COVID-19: Modulating the extent of infection Introduction Gut-virome and its composition Gut-virome and immune response Influences of eukaryotic viruses on immune responses Influences of bacteriophages on immune responses Direct influences Indirect influences SARS-CoV-2 affects gut through gut-lung axis SARS-CoV-2 and gut-virome Therapeutic treatment and gut virome Future prospects References Chapter 25: Unveiling the prevalence and impact of diabetes on COVID-19 Introduction to SARS-CoV2: Molecular basis of its pathogenicity The Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone pathway-antagonistic function of ACE and ACE-2 in the RAAS axis ACE-2 and diabetic complications: Role in diabetic cardiovascular complications and heart diseases Covid-19 and diabetes: Is the correlation a myth or a reality? Immune dysbiosis in diabetes and COVID-19 Key cellular molecules implicated in reversing inflammatory damage Understanding the molecular basis of COVID-19 and hyperglycemia cross-talk COVID-19 therapy with and without hyperglycemia Implications of climate change in COVID-19 pandemic Concluding remarks References Chapter 26: The interrelation of obesity and COVID-19 in aging Introduction Aging, inflaging and COVID-19 Obesity and plausibility of COVID-19 Biological horizons Conclusion References Chapter 27: Mucormycosis: Prognosis and management Introduction History Types of mucormycosis Pathogens causing mucormycosis Pathogenesis Epidemiology Hematological malignancy Solid organ malignancies and solid organ transplantation Corticosteroids Natural disaster COVID-19 related Clinical manifestations Pulmonary mucormycosis Rhinocerebral mucormycosis Cutaneous mucormycosis Gastrointestinal mucormycosis Disseminated mucormycosis Uncommon forms of mucormycosis Diagnosis Orbit or sinus radiography Computed tomography (CT) Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) Histopathological examination Treatment approaches to mucormycosis Reversal or prevention of underlying disease Surgery Antifungal treatment for mucormycosis Lipid formulations of Amphotericin B New triazoles Posaconazole Isavuconazole Combination therapy New antifungals against mucorales Conclusion References Further reading Chapter 28: Omicron: Mystery, history, and impact on existence Introduction Structural components Structure of the SARS-CoV2 S protein Symptoms Features Contagiousness Virulence Diagnosis Prevention Conclusion References Part IV: Parasitic infections and therapeutics Chapter 29: Host immune responses against parasitic infection Introduction Epidemiology Immune response against plasmodium Immune response against Leishmania Complement system Immune cells for immunity against Leishmania Immunity against filariasis Immunity against helminths Conclusion References Chapter 30: Malaria: Epidemiology, pathogenesis, and therapeutics Introduction Background of the disease Causative agent of malaria Life cycle of a mosquito Egg Larva Pupa Adult Life cycle and taxonomic classification of Plasmodium sp. Systematic position [23] Life cycle Asexual cycle in human Sexual cycle in anopheles Transmission of the disease Types and nature of the disease Geographical distribution Risk of travelers Types of travelers Variation of malaria transmission in some areas Symptoms and diagnosis of malaria Early and late-onset symptoms of malaria Role of nanoparticles in disease diagnosis Clinical aspects Host-parasite interaction Host-parasite interaction in Plasmodium invasion stages Factors affecting erythrocyte invasion Host immunity Comparative analysis of parasitemia created by different Plasmodium species Activation of host immune responses and clearance Immune evasion mechanisms Host defense through hemoglobinopathy-associated immune mechanisms Role of genetics Role of plasmodium genetics: Antigenic variation Role of human genetics conferring resistance to malaria Hemoglobinopathies Mutations in erythrocyte surface antigens Cytoskeletal abnormalities Enzyme deficiencies Malaria risk and prevention Personal and unit protection Personal Protection Unit protection Risk of children and pregnant women Risk of children Protection of children from malaria Risk of pregnant females Risk of infants Chemoprophylaxis Treatment Artemisinin-based combination therapies Emergence of drug resistance Vaccines against malaria Conclusion References Chapter 31: Infection of the gastrointestinal tract: Giardiasis and amoebiasis Introduction Giardia lamblia Etiology and epidemiology Pathophysiology Clinical features Clinical investigations Management Entamoeba histolytica Etiology and epidemiology Pathophysiology Clinical features Clinical investigations Management Recent advancement Conclusion References Chapter 32: Epidemiology and management of neurocysticercosis: An update Introduction Epidemiology of neurocysticercosis Pathology and pathogenesis Diagnosis History and physical examination Classification of neurocysticercosis on basis of neuroimaging Inactive neurocysticercosis Active neurocysticercosis Active subarachnoid neurocysticercosis Other forms of cysticercosis Serology Treatment Socioeconomic challenges and neurocysticercosis eradication Conclusion References Chapter 33: Treatment strategies against selected common tropical parasitic diseases Introduction Chemotherapeutic agents against parasites Challenges to chemotherapy and evolution of treatment strategies Immunotherapy against parasitic diseases: An alternative approach Concluding remarks References Chapter 34: An overview on leishmaniasis Introduction Clinical presentation Visceral leishmaniasis Epidemiology Etiology L. donovani L. infantum/L. chagasi Pathophysiology Life cycle Pathogenesis Risk factors Immunology Diagnosis Treatment PKDL Epidemiology Pathogenesis and immunology Life cycle Signs and symptoms Diagnosis Leishmanin skin test Culture and microscopy rK-39 strip test Molecular-based diagnosis Treatment Sodium antimony gluconate Amphotericin B Miltefosine Combination therapy Conclusion References Chapter 35: Leishmaniasis: Biology, clinical diagnosis, and treatment Introduction The Leishmania life cycle Epidemiology of leishmaniasis Clinical leishmaniasis Cutaneous leishmaniasis Mucocutaneous leishmaniasis (MCL) Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) Leishmaniasis recidivans (LR) Post kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis (PKDL) Diagnosis of leishmaniasis Prevention of leishmaniasis Treatment Parenteral therapy Oral therapy Local therapy Cryo-, heat-, and photodynamic therapy Secondary prophylaxis References Chapter 36: Natural products in the treatment of Leishmaniasis Introduction Taxonomy, morphology, and life cycle of leishmania Clinical manifestations of leishmaniasis Diagnosis and detection of leishmaniasis Current therapeutic regimen of leishmaniasis and their shortcomings Natural products as promising alternatives for the treatment of leishmaniasis Various plant-derived natural compounds and their mode of action Quinones Alkaloids Lignans Tannins Iridoids Terpenoids Sterols Oxylipin Flavonoids Chalcones Saponins Approaches to overcome multidrug resistance (MDR) by natural antileishmanial compounds Future perspectives and concluding remarks References Chapter 37: Immunomodulators: Progress and prospects in Leishmania infection Introduction Leishmania species parasitic to human Clinical classification of leishmaniasis Cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) Mucocutaneous leishmaniasis (MCL) Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) Available therapies and challenges Antimonials Amphotericin B and its liposomal formulations Paromomycin and miltefosine Pentamidine isothionate and azole medicines Immunomodulators as alternatives Checkpoint inhibitors Cytokines Agonists Adjuvants Immunomodulators in metabolic diseases Immunomodulatory effect of vitamin D Immunomodulatory role of CD38 Intestinal IgA acts as a modulator of the gut microbiota Heat shock proteins as immunomodulators Immunomodulators in infectious diseases Effect of IL-12 in infectious diseases Role of IL-2 in HIV infection Pharmaco-immunomodulatory therapy in COVID-19 Adjuvant immunomodulators as therapeutics of severe influenza Progress of immunomodulators in leishmaniasis Important immunomodulators and their role in leishmaniasis Future prospects Discussion References Chapter 38: Nanoparticle-based approach toward leishmaniasis treatment Introduction Nanoparticle-based approaches Polymeric nanoparticles Liposomes Solid-lipid nanoparticles Metallic nanoparticles Inorganic nanoparticles Conclusion References Chapter 39: Management of parasitic infections Introduction Management Protozoa Helminths Ectoparasites Concluding remarks References Part V: Bacterial infections and therapeutics Chapter 40: Bacterial infections: Antimicrobial mechanism of action and bacterial resistance Introduction Methods Penicillin and its mechanism of action against bacteria Mechanism of action Metronidazole and its mechanism of action against bacteria Mechanism of action Quinolone and its mechanism of action against bacteria Mechanism of action Sulfonamide and its mechanism of action against bacteria Mechanism of action Bacterial resistance to antibiotics Conclusions References Chapter 41: Sepsis presentation and pathophysiology Introduction Epidemiology of sepsis Evolution in the definition of sepsis Etiology Urosepsis Pneumonia COVID-19 Intra-abdominal infections Necrotizing soft tissue infections Pathophysiology of sepsis Clinical presentation, laboratory assessment, and sepsis phenotypes Management Immediate evaluation Septic shock management De-escalation of therapy Outcomes Concluding remarks References Chapter 42: Neonatal sepsis: Recent advances in pathophysiology and management Introduction Epidemiology Classification Early onset sepsis (EOS) Late onset sepsis (LOS) Neonatal immune system Pathophysiology Epigenetic variations Infection-induced DNA methylation Micro RNAs Genetic polymorphism Gene polymorphism in interleukins Tumor necrosis factor-Gene polymorphism Toll like receptors (TLR)-Gene polymorphism Diagnosis Screening tests Immunohematological tests Blood culture PCR-based technology Lumbar puncture Urine culture Radiological investigations Management Supportive Antimicrobial therapy Adjuvant therapy Vitamin D Zinc supplementation Outcome and prognosis Conclusion References Chapter 43: An update on tuberculosis Introduction Epidemiology and public health Microbiology Immunology Tests and diagnostic approach Clinical manifestations Treatment Current research Conclusion References Chapter 44: Nutritional status in tuberculosis: A comprehensive problem to be addressed Introduction Impact of nutritional deficiency on TB Impact of TB on nutritional status Macronutrients and micronutrients in TB Proteins Cholesterol Carbohydrates Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) Vitamins Vitamin A Vitamin B1 Vitamin E Vitamin B12 Vitamin C Vitamin D Minerals Iron Copper (Cu) Zinc Selenium Calcium Magnesium Sodium Phosphorous Herbal supplements Tea Vegetarianism Way forward Personalized nutrition Nutrigenomics and nutrigenetics Nutriepigenomics and nutriepigenetics Gut microbiome Conclusion References Chapter 45: Clostridium difficile infection and gut microbiota: From fundamentals to microbiota-centered strategies Introduction Characteristic of C. difficile and C. difficile infection What is C. difficile C. difficile transmission and life cycle Disease pathogenesis and clinical manifestations Epidemiology Gut microbiota and the maintenance of intestinal immunometabolic homeostasis Targeting intestinal immunometabolic regulators under C. difficile infection that in turn functions under the gut microbial ... Bile acid signaling Endocannabinoid system Aryl hydrocarbon receptor Nuclear receptor superfamily Gut microbiota associated with CDI Microbiota-associated risk factor for CDI Interaction of C. difficile with gut commensals: Evidence from experimental studies Studies with antibiotic treatment Studies utilizing germ-free (GF) mice Studies with mono-strain interactions Studies with probiotic consortia Fecal microbiota transfer in CDI Evidence-based prophylaxis against CDI Conclusion References Chapter 46: Nanoparticle-based treatment of bacterial biofilms Introduction Role of antibiotics in biofilm treatment Nanoparticle-based approaches for treating bacterial biofilms Metal nanoparticles Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) Iron nanoparticles Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) Copper nanoparticles Silica nanoparticles Metal oxide nanoparticles Other nanomaterials Liposomes Chitosan nanoparticles PLGA nanoparticles Current strategies in biofilm treatment Sutures and wound dressings Oral implants Heart valves and pacemakers Catheters Endotracheal tubes Contact lenses Drug delivery Conclusion References Chapter 47: The NET response to biofilm infections Introduction Biofilms Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) NETosis and the clearance of biofilms Chromatin Granular proteins Reactive species Phagocytosis Biofilms and the evasion of NETosis Matrix Secreted proteins Adaptation Conclusions References Chapter 48: The challenge of pulmonary Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection: How to bridge research and clinical pathology Introduction Clinical presentation and pathology Hospital acquired pneumonia Community acquired pneumonia Pneumonia in immunocompromised patients Cystic fibrosis Pathogenicity Virulence factors Outer membrane Released products and other bacterial products Protein secretion systems Iron acquisition systems Quorum sensing Biofilm formation Antibiotic resistance Host immune response alteration Animal models Rodent models Acute pulmonary inflammation Chronic pulmonary infection Models with immunomodulation Immunization models 2-Hit sepsis model Non-rodent models Pig models Rabbit models Ferret models Invertebrate models References Chapter 49: Pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, and treatment of leprosy Introduction Symptoms and signs of leprosy Etiology Pathogenesis Classification/types of leprosy WHO classification Ridley-Jopling classification Clinical features Tuberculoid (TT) Borderline tuberculoid (BT) Midborderline leprosy (BB) Borderline lepromatous leprosy (BL) Lepromatous leprosy (LL) Other variants Indeterminate leprosy Pure neuritic leprosy Histoid leprosy Diagnosis Slit skin smear Histopathology Tuberculoid end Lepromatous end Other investigations Management of Leprosy Multidrug therapy (MDT) Treatment of reactions References Chapter 50: Noncoding RNAs and their role in bacterial infections Introduction Types of noncoding RNAs Housekeeping ncRNAs Regulatory ncRNAs Role of noncoding RNAs in infections Conclusion References Part VI: Fungal infections and therapeutics Chapter 51: Fungal infection: An unrecognized threat Introduction Athletes foot Jock itch Ringworm Yeast infection Fungal nail infection (onychomycosis) Fungal eye infections Blastomycosis Cryptococcus Paracoccidioidomycosis Coccidioidomycosis (valley fever) Aspergillosis Candida auris infection Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP) Mucormycosis Talaromycosis Sporotrichosis Mycetoma Fungal diseases and COVID-19 Preventive approach-Host defense to fungal infection Immune response to fungi Fungal