Violence and Aggression: Integrating Theory, Research, and Practice (Advances in Preventing and Treating Violence and Aggression)

This book provides a concise-yet-comprehensive overview of the broad-ranging topics in the field of violence and aggression. It uses a functional approach that acknowledges the evolutionary, cultural, and operant nature of violence and aggression. The book defines the nature of different forms of violence and aggression; examines epidemiology and risk factors; describes biological, cultural and individual causes; and discusses individual and societal prevention and treatment. Key areas of coverage include: Epidemiology of violence and aggression. Biological and social causes of violence and aggression. Cultural interventions, psychotherapies, and individual biological interventions. The effects of violence and aggression in special populations. Violence and Aggression: Integrating Theory, Research, and Practice is a must-have resource for researchers, academics, and upper-level undergraduate and graduate students in forensic psychology, public health, criminology/criminal justice, developmental psychology, psychotherapy/counseling, psychiatry, social work, educational policy and politics, health psychology, nursing, and behavioral therapy/rehabilitation. Preface A Functional Approach to Aggression and Violence Why Did I Write This Book? Avoid Unnecessary Pathologizing of Aggression Modest Optimism References Contents Part I: Introductory Concepts Chapter 1: Definitions of Violence and Aggression 1.1 What Are Aggression and Violence? 1.2 Aggression or Violence? 1.2.1 Less Immediately Physically Harmful Forms of Aggression 1.3 Types of Aggression and Violence 1.3.1 Hostile and Instrumental Aggression and Violence 1.3.2 Structural and Functional Categories 1.3.3 Categorization by Severity of Aggression and Violence 1.3.4 Policy-Driven Definitions 1.3.5 Theoretically-Driven Approaches 1.3.6 Measurement Systems that Define Aggression and Violence 1.3.7 Behavioral Approaches 1.3.8 Summary 1.4 Legal Definitions 1.5 Normal Versus Abnormal Violence and Aggression 1.5.1 Statistical Approaches 1.5.2 Association with Psychopathology 1.6 Summary References Chapter 2: Measurement of Violence and Aggression 2.1 Archival Measures 2.1.1 Archival Data on War Crimes, Genocide, Ethnic Cleansing 2.2 Interview Measures 2.3 Psychometric Measures 2.4 Physiological Measures 2.5 Experimental-Analog Measure 2.6 Observational Measures 2.7 Economic Evaluation 2.8 Risk Assessment 2.9 Summary References Chapter 3: Epidemiology of Violence and Aggression 3.1 Epidemiological Concepts 3.2 Human Aggression and Violence 3.2.1 Global Population Studies 3.2.1.1 Global Murder Rates 3.2.1.2 Women 3.2.1.3 Children as Victims 3.2.1.4 Parents as Victims 3.2.2 Violence in the USA 3.2.2.1 Murder Rates 3.2.2.2 Other American Aggression and Violence 3.3 Risk Factors in Humans 3.3.1 Interpersonal Disputes 3.3.2 Alcohol and Illicit Drugs 3.3.3 Crowding 3.3.4 Temperature 3.3.5 Access to Weapons 3.3.6 Poverty and Income Inequality 3.3.7 At Risk Settings 3.3.8 What Makes a Hot Spot? 3.3.9 Ethnicity and Cultural Groups 3.3.10 Medical Conditions 3.3.11 COVID and Aggression and Violence 3.3.12 Summary 3.4 At Risk Populations 3.4.1 Psychiatric Disorders 3.4.2 Individuals with Developmental Disabilities 3.4.3 Youth in Residential Settings 3.4.4 Older Adults in Residential Care 3.4.5 Comment: Some Common Factors? 3.5 Nonhuman Animals 3.5.1 Aggression in Dogs 3.6 Summary References Part II: Causes Chapter 4: Biological Evolution of Violence and Aggression. I. Evolution and Genetics 4.1 What Is a Cause? 4.2 Biological Causes 4.3 Biological Evolution of Aggression 4.3.1 The Contribution of Konrad Lorenz 4.3.2 Sexual Selection and Aggression 4.3.2.1 The Selfish Gene 4.3.2.2 Sexual Selection and Aggression 4.3.2.3 Selection of Human Aggression? 4.3.2.4 Killing Your Family 4.3.2.5 Human Infanticide and Biological Evolution 4.3.2.6 Human Cultural Practices 4.4 Genetics 4.4.1 Interspecies Differences in Aggression 4.4.2 Breeding Domestic and Laboratory Animals 4.4.2.1 Domestication of Animals 4.4.2.2 Laboratory Animals 4.4.2.3 Genetics, Culture, and Learning Interact 4.4.3 Human Genetic Studies 4.4.3.1 Human Twin Studies 4.4.3.2 Single Human Genes 4.4.3.3 Genetics of Psychopathy 4.4.3.4 The XYY Syndrome 4.4.3.5 Disability-related Genetic Syndromes 4.5 Epigenetics and Aggression 4.5.1 Cichlid Epigenetic Model 4.6 Critiques of Evolutionary and Genetic Models 4.6.1 Critiques from Feminist Theories 4.7 Summary References Chapter 5: Biological Evolution of Violence and Aggression. II: Brains, Neurotransmitters, and Hormones 5.1 Brain Structures 5.1.1 Types of Evidence 5.1.2 Brain Structures 5.1.3 The Limbic System 5.1.4 Cortical Structures 5.1.5 Summary 5.2 Neurotransmitters 5.2.1 Serotonin 5.2.2 Dopamine 5.2.3 Other Neurotransmitters 5.2.4 Summary 5.3 Hormones 5.3.1 Basic Endocrinological Concepts 5.3.2 Testosterone 5.3.2.1 Anabolic Steroids and “Roid Rage” 5.3.3 Corticosteroids 5.3.4 The Dual Hormone Hypothesis 5.3.5 Thyroxin 5.3.6 Oxytocin and Vasopressin 5.3.7 Summary 5.4 Summary References Chapter 6: Social Causes of Violence and Aggression: I. Cultural Evolution 6.1 What Is Cultural Evolution? 6.1.1 Skinner and Cultural Evolution 6.1.2 Cultural Evolution, Aggression, and Violence 6.1.3 Summary 6.2 Cultural Evolution in Non-Human Primates 6.2.1 Organized Violence in Primates 6.2.1.1 Chimpanzees 6.2.1.2 Bonobos 6.2.1.3 Comment 6.2.1.4 Application to Humans 6.2.2 Limitations in Applications to Humans: Contemporary Human Wars 6.3 Chapter Summary References Chapter 7: Social Causes of Violence and Aggression: II. Human Cultural Evolution 7.1 Differences in Aggression in Human Cultures 7.1.1 Cultural Differences in Homicide 7.1.2 Historical Trends in Human Homicide 7.1.2.1 Broad Historical Trends 7.1.2.2 Recent Homicide Data 7.1.2.3 How We Got Civilized 7.1.2.4 Conclusions 7.1.3 US Southern Culture 7.1.4 The Cosa Nostra 7.1.4.1 Selecting and Training Murderers 7.1.5 Race Riots and Pogroms 7.1.5.1 Tulsa Race Riot 1921 7.1.5.2 Pogroms 7.1.5.3 Race Riots and Pogroms: Similarities and Differences 7.2 Cultural Extinction and Homicide 7.2.1 Viking Extinction in Greenland 7.2.1.1 The Role of Aggression and Violence in Cultural Extinction 7.3 Functional Explanations of Cultural Differences and Evolution 7.3.1 Nonviolent Protest 7.4 Summary References Chapter 8: Social Causes of Violence and Aggression: III. Evolution of Aggression over the Lifespan 8.1 Classical Conditioning 8.2 The Selecting Environment 8.2.1 Reinforcement and Shaping of Aggression 8.2.2 Chaining 8.2.3 Generalized Imitation 8.2.3.1 Bandura and Bobo Dolls 8.2.4 Schedule-Induced Aggression 8.2.5 Summary 8.3 Anger and Aggression 8.3.1 Skinner, Emotions, and Aggression 8.3.2 Novel Aggressive and Angry Responding 8.4 Behavioral Self-Control 8.4.1 Skinner and Self-Control 8.4.2 Interventions to Reduce Impulsivity 8.4.3 Summary 8.5 Verbal Behavior 8.6 Summary References Chapter 9: Psychological and Sociological Theories of Violence and Aggression 9.1 Psychoanalytic Theory 9.1.1 Sigmund Freud’s Theories 9.1.2 Anna Freud’s Contribution 9.1.3 Fonagy, Mentalization, and Aggression 9.1.4 Comment 9.2 The Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis 9.3 Social Learning Theory 9.3.1 The Coercive Family Processes Model 9.3.2 Summary 9.4 Behavior Analytic Theory 9.5 Cognitive Neo-Associationist Theories 9.6 General Aggression Model 9.7 Feminist Theories 9.8 Social Role Theory 9.9 Conclusions References Part III: Assessment, Treatment, and Prevention Chapter 10: Assessment for Treatment of Violence and Aggression 10.1 Functional Assessment and Analysis 10.1.1 Methods 10.1.1.1 Indirect Methods 10.1.1.2 Direct Observational Methods 10.1.1.3 Functional Analysis 10.1.1.4 Comment 10.2 Assessment of Aggression- and Anger-Related Cognition 10.3 Case Formulation 10.3.1 Case Formulation and Aggression and Violence: Nonforensic Applications 10.3.2 Case Formulation and Aggression and Violence: Forensic Applications 10.3.2.1 Daffern et al.’s Typology of Function 10.3.2.2 Multiple Sequential Functional Analysis 10.3.2.3 Vedel and Emmelkamp’s (2011) Method 10.3.2.4 Offense Paralleling Behavior 10.3.3 Training Practitioners in Forensic Case Formulation 10.3.4 Summary 10.4 Chapter Summary References Chapter 11: Individual Biological Interventions for Violence and Aggression. I. Psychopharmacology and Hormonal Treatments 11.1 Psychopharmacological Intervention 11.1.1 Acute Aggression and Violence 11.1.2 As Needed (PRN) Medications 11.1.3 Routinely Prescribed Psychotropic Medications 11.1.3.1 Antipsychotics 11.1.4 Intermittent Explosive Disorder 11.1.5 Epilepsy, Psychotropic Medications, and Aggression 11.1.6 Conclusions 11.2 Hormonal Treatments 11.2.1 Surgical and Chemical Castration 11.2.2 Treatment of Hyperthyroidism and Aggression 11.2.3 Oxytocin- and Vasopressin-Based Treatment of Aggression 11.2.4 Hormones and Individual Case Formulation 11.2.5 Summary 11.3 Chapter Summary References Chapter 12: Individual Biological Interventions for Violence and Aggression. II. Other Biological Treatments 12.1 Neurosurgery 12.1.1 History of Neurosurgery 12.1.2 Lobotomy 12.1.3 Amygdalotomy 12.1.4 Hypothalamic Surgery 12.1.5 Cingulotomy 12.1.6 Summary and Conclusion 12.2 Electrical and Magnetic Brain Stimulation 12.2.1 Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation 12.2.2 Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation 12.2.3 Deep Brain Stimulation 12.2.4 Vagal Nerve Stimulation 12.2.5 Summary 12.3 Electro-Convulsive Therapy 12.4 Dietary Treatments 12.4.1 Serotonergic Diets 12.4.2 Omega-3 Fatty Acid Diets 12.4.3 Caffeine 12.4.4 Summary 12.5 Chapter Summary References Chapter 13: Cultural Design to Change Violence and Aggression. I. Radical Behavioral Approaches 13.1 Skinner and Cultural Design 13.2 Designing Cultures 13.3 Walden Two 13.4 Planned Behavioral Communities 13.4.1 Comunidad Los Horcones 13.4.2 Sunflower House 13.4.3 Twin Oaks 13.4.4 Comment 13.5 Behavioral Cultural Interventions for Violence 13.5.1 Gang Violence 13.5.2 La Violencia 13.5.3 Police Violence 13.5.4 Comment 13.6 Challenges in Explicit Cultural Design 13.7 Conclusions References Chapter 14: Cultural Interventions to Change Violence and Aggression. II. Broad-Based Intuitive Approaches 14.1 Utopias 14.1.1 The Oneida Community 14.1.2 Hutterites 14.1.3 Comment 14.2 Cultural Evolution of Peace: Truth and Reconciliation 14.2.1 Rough Justice After World War II 14.2.1.1 Nuremberg 14.2.2 Restorative Justice 14.2.2.1 South Africa and the End of Apartheid 14.2.2.2 Northern Ireland and the Troubles 14.2.2.3 Canada and First Nations 14.2.2.4 Comment 14.3 Building a More Violent Society 14.3.1 Hate Schools 14.4 Conclusions References Chapter 15: Cultural Interventions to Change Violence and Aggression. III. Intuitive Focused Approaches 15.1 Child Rearing Practices 15.2 Schools and Other Educational Settings 15.2.1 Meta-Analyses of School-Based Interventions 15.2.2 School-Wide Positive Behavior Support 15.2.3 Student Violence Against Teachers 15.2.4 Summary 15.3 Evidence-Based Policing to Reduce Violence 15.3.1 Overviews 15.3.2 Hotspot Policing and Violent Crime 15.3.3 Reducing Police Violence 15.3.3.1 Dashboard and Other Cameras 15.3.3.2 Replacing Police Services 15.3.4 Comment 15.4 National Prevention Programs 15.5 Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design 15.5.1 Street Lighting 15.5.2 Public Cameras 15.5.3 Preventing Access to Hotspot Locations 15.5.4 Conclusions 15.6 Media Interventions 15.7 Bystander Training 15.8 Arms Reduction Programs and Safe Gun Use 15.8.1 Teaching Gun Safety Skills 15.9 Alcohol Reduction Programs 15.10 Restorative Justice for Individuals 15.11 Summary References Chapter 16: Individual Therapies for Violence and Aggression: I. Cognitive and Behavioral Therapies 16.1 Cognitive Behavior Therapies 16.1.1 General Approach 16.1.2 Cognitive Behavior Therapy Outcome Research 16.1.3 Aggression Replacement Training 16.1.3.1 Beyond ART 16.1.4 Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy 16.1.5 Novaco’s Anger Management Program 16.1.6 Summary 16.2 Behavior Modification 16.2.1 General Characteristics 16.2.2 Reciprocal Inhibition and Anger 16.2.3 Operant Treatment of Aggressive Behavior 16.2.4 Token Economies 16.2.5 Good Behavior Game 16.2.6 Commentary 16.3 Applied Behavior Analysis 16.3.1 General Approach 16.3.1.1 An ABA Intervention for Aggression 16.3.1.2 Summary 16.3.2 Pain-Induced Aggression 16.3.3 Reinforcement of Aggression 16.3.4 Extinction-Induced Aggression 16.3.5 Comment 16.4 Third Wave Behavior Therapy 16.4.1 Acceptance and Commitment Therapy 16.4.2 Functional Analytic Psychotherapy 16.4.3 Dialectical Behavior Therapy 16.4.4 Mindfulness 16.4.5 Summary 16.5 Chapter Summary References Chapter 17: Individual Therapies for Violence and Aggression. II. Other Therapies 17.1 Couples and Family Therapy 17.1.1 The Duluth Model 17.1.2 Batterer Intervention Programs 17.1.3 Parent Skills Training 17.1.3.1 Incredible Years Parent Training 17.1.3.2 Positive Parent Training Program 17.1.3.3 Comment 17.1.4 Conjoint Therapy 17.1.5 Family Therapy 17.2 Psychoanalytic and Psychodynamic Psychotherapy 17.3 Counseling 17.4 Restorative Justice Practices 17.5 Martial Arts and Combat Sports 17.6 Boot Camps: Just Say No! 17.7 Other Psychosocial Interventions 17.8 Summary References Chapter 18: Treatment of Violence and Aggression in Children, Adolescents, Families, and Schools 18.1 Intervention in The Cradle of Violence 18.1.1 Family Violence Against Infants and Young Children 18.2 School-Based Interventions 18.2.1 General Prevention in Schools 18.2.2 Schools and Gangs 18.3 Delinquent Adolescents 18.3.1 Prevention of Youth Violence 18.3.2 Achievement Place 18.3.3 Adolescent Sex Offenders 18.3.4 Summary 18.4 Elder Abuse Within the Family 18.5 Chapter Summary References Chapter 19: Treatment of Violence and Aggression in Adults 19.1 Violent Adult Offenders 19.2 Psychiatric Disorders 19.2.1 Psychosocial Interventions 19.2.2 Pharmacological Interventions 19.2.3 Summary 19.3 Intellectual Disabilities and Autism Spectrum Disorders 19.3.1 Applied Behavior Analysis 19.3.2 Psychopharmacology 19.3.2.1 Risperidone, Autism, and Aggression 19.3.3 Comment 19.3.4 Other Psychosocial Interventions 19.3.5 Offenders with ID 19.3.5.1 Anger Management 19.3.5.2 Offender Rehabilitation Programs 19.3.6 Offenders with Autism Spectrum Disorders 19.3.6.1 Comment 19.3.7 Summary 19.4 Traumatic Brain Injury 19.4.1 Psychosocial Interventions 19.4.2 Psychopharmacology 19.4.3 Summary 19.5 Residential Settings 19.5.1 Youth Residential Services 19.5.2 Residential Services for Seniors 19.5.3 Residential Services for People with ID/ASD 19.5.4 Summary 19.6 Treatment of Victims 19.6.1 Infants and Young Children as Victims 19.6.2 Adolescents and Intimate Partner Violence 19.6.3 Adult Victims 19.6.3.1 Victims of Intimate Partner Violence 19.6.3.2 Violence and PTSD 19.6.4 Summary 19.7 Chapter Summary References Chapter 20: Future Directions in Research and Practice in Violence and Aggression: Reasons for Cautious Optimism 20.1 Biological Evolution and Selection of Human Aggression 20.2 Cultural Evolution and Design 20.2.1 Families: Cradles of Violence or Nests of Peace? 20.2.1.1 Raising Pro-Social, Non-violent Children 20.2.1.2 Reducing Violence Between Caretakers and Children 20.2.1.3 Violence Between Adult Family Members 20.2.1.4 Summary 20.2.2 Better Education Can Buffer Against Aggression and Violence 20.2.2.1 Violence on University Campuses 20.2.2.2 Failure to Adopt Evidence-Based Practices in Education 20.2.3 Controlling Access to Alcohol, Other Drugs, and Weapons 20.2.4 Effective, Non-coercive Police Service and Justice Systems 20.2.5 Control of Media 20.2.6 Summary 20.3 Selection of Individual People’s Behavior During the Lifespan 20.3.1 Learning During the Lifespan 20.3.2 Individual Therapies 20.4 Individual Biological Treatments 20.5 Support and Treatment of Victims and Building Resilience 20.6 The Challenge of Implementing What Works 20.6.1 An Example of Effective Dissemination: The National Academic Centers of Excellence for Youth Violence Prevention 20.6.2 Challenges to Implementation of Evidence-Based Practices 20.7 Summary References Index