Valorization of Biomass to Value-Added Commodities: Current Trends, Challenges, and Future Prospects (Green Energy and Technology)

Preface Contents About the Editors Part I: Characterization of Biomass Feedstock Chapter 1: Application of Lignocellulosic Biomass (LCB) 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Biomass and Climate Change 1.2.1 Lignocellulosic Biomass 1.3 Sources of Lignocellulosic Biomass 1.4 Motivations for the Application of Lignocellulosic Biomass (LCB) 1.4.1 Environmental Benefits 1.4.2 Energy Security 1.4.3 Socioeconomic Advantages 1.4.4 Educational Benefits 1.5 Value-Added Products of LCB and Their Application 1.6 Factors That Affect the Application of LCB 1.7 Lignocellulosic Biomass Conversion Pathway 1.8 Value Creation Pathway 1.9 Challenges Associated with the Exploration of Lignocellulosic Biomass (LCB) 1.10 Conclusion References Chapter 2: A Short Overview of Analytical Techniques in Biomass Feedstock Characterization 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Biomass Conversion Processes 2.2.1 Thermal Processes 2.2.1.1 Direct Combustion Techniques 2.2.1.2 Co-firing 2.2.1.3 Pyrolysis 2.2.1.4 Torrefaction 2.2.1.5 Carbonization 2.2.1.6 Gasification 2.2.1.7 Catalytic Liquefaction 2.2.2 Biochemical Processes 2.3 Biomass Composition 2.4 Chemical Composition 2.5 Analytical Techniques for Biomass Characterization 2.6 Thermochemical Properties of Biomass 2.7 Analytical Techniques for Elemental Analysis 2.8 Morphology and Particle Size Analysis 2.9 Microscopy Imaging for Particle Characterization 2.10 Biomass Storage Simulation 2.11 Advanced Instrumentation Techniques – Hybrid Rapid-Screening Techniques 2.11.1 Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) 2.11.2 Fourier-Transform Mid-Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-MIR) 2.11.3 Fourier-Transform Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-NIR) 2.11.4 Ultraviolet–Visible Spectroscopy and Fluorescence 2.11.5 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) 2.11.6 Hydrothermal Pretreatment (HTP) Recalcitrance Screening 2.12 Analytical Methods in Hybrid Technologies 2.13 Other Tests for Characterizing Biomass 2.14 Challenges to Biomass Characterization and Analysis 2.15 Conclusion and Outlook References Chapter 3: Compositional Analysis of Zimbabwean Sugarcane Bagasse Ash Towards Production of Nano Silicon for Solar Cell Application 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Methodology 3.3 Results and Discussion 3.3.1 Ash Content, Calorific Value and Elemental Composition 3.3.2 Thermogravimetric Analysis of SCB, SCBBA and SCBFA 3.3.3 XRF Analysis of SCB, SCBBA and SCBFA 3.3.4 FTIR Analysis for SCB, SCBBA and SCBFA 3.3.5 XRD Analysis for SCB, SCBBA and SCBFA 3.3.6 FE-SEM Analysis for SCB, SCBBA and SCBBA 3.4 Conclusions References Chapter 4: Application of Artificial Intelligence in the Prediction of Thermal Properties of Biomass 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Renewable Energy and the Application Artificial Intelligence 4.3 Kinds of Data for Model Development 4.4 Model Development Techniques 4.5 Model Evaluation Criteria 4.5.1 Assessment Criteria for Good Prediction Models 4.5.2 Linear and Nonlinear Equation for Biomass HHV Estimation 4.5.3 Stages where ANN Can be Applied in Value Creation Cycle 4.6 Categories of Models for Biomass Properties Prediction 4.7 Elements of ANN Architecture 4.8 Mathematical Modelling of Artificial Neural Network (ANN) 4.9 Paradigms of Machine Learning (ML) 4.10 Sources of Noise in Biomass Data 4.11 Peculiarities of Activation Functions 4.12 Classification of ANN 4.13 Training Algorithm 4.14 Some Common Terms in ANN 4.15 Data Division Methods for ANN Modelling 4.16 Sensitivity Analysis (SA) 4.16.1 Methods for Sensitivity Analysis 4.17 Loss Functions in ANN 4.18 Stages in ANN Modelling 4.19 Application of Evolutional Algorithm for Biomass Properties Prediction 4.20 A Survey of some Reported HHV Based on Artificial Intelligence 4.21 Case Studies on the Application of AI for Properties of Biomass 4.21.1 Case Study 1: Improved Prediction of HHV of Biomass Using an ANN Model Based on Proximate Analysis 4.21.2 Case Study 2: Application of ANFIS-PSO Algorithm as a Novel Method for Prediction of HHV of Biomass 4.22 Conclusion References Chapter 5: Thermochemical Characterization of Biomass Residues and Wastes for Bioenergy 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Biomass Characterization Methods 5.2.1 Particle Size Distribution 5.2.2 Proximate Analysis 5.2.3 Compositional Analysis of Biomass 5.2.4 Ultimate Analysis 5.2.5 Thermogravimetric Analysis 5.2.6 Pyrolysis Gas-Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (Py-GC-MS) 5.2.7 Other Methods of Characterization: Nanoscale 5.3 Evolving Methods of Biomass Characterization, Challenges and Future Outlook 5.4 Conclusion References Chapter 6: Evaluation of Methods for the Analysis of Untreated and Processed Lignocellulosic Biomasses 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Compositional Analysis 6.2.1 Gravimetric Determination 6.3 Physical and Chemical Measurements 6.3.1 Proximate Analysis 6.3.2 Ultimate Analysis 6.3.3 Higher Heating Value 6.3.4 Spectroscopy Techniques of Measurement 6.3.4.1 X-ray Diffraction (XRD) 6.3.4.2 Visible/Ultraviolet (UV) 6.3.4.3 Infrared (IR) 6.3.4.4 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) 6.3.4.5 Raman Spectroscopy 6.3.4.6 Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (NIR) 6.3.5 Microscopy Analysis 6.3.5.1 Scanning and Transmission Electron Microscopy 6.3.5.2 Light Microscopy Imaging 6.3.5.3 Stereomicroscopy Imaging 6.4 Conclusion References Part II: Pretreatment and Processes for Conversion of Biomass to Value-Added Commodities Chapter 7: Biological and Non-Biological Methods for Lignocellulosic Biomass Deconstruction 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Physical Pretreatment 7.2.1 Mechanical Comminution 7.2.2 Pyrolysis 7.2.2.1 High-Energy Radiation 7.3 Physico-Chemical Pretreatment 7.3.1 Steam Explosion (Autohydrolysis) 7.3.2 Ammonia Fibre Explosion (AFEX) 7.3.3 CO2 Explosion 7.4 Chemical Pretreatment 7.4.1 Ozonolysis 7.4.2 Acid Hydrolysis 7.4.3 Alkaline Hydrolysis 7.4.4 Oxidative Delignification 7.4.5 Organosolv Process 7.5 Biological Pretreatment 7.6 Conclusion References Chapter 8: Lignocellulosic Pretreatment Methods for Bioethanol Production 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Physical and Physicochemical Pretreatment 8.2.1 Steam Explosion 8.2.1.1 Steam Explosion Drawbacks 8.2.2 Ammonia Fiber Explosion (AFEX) 8.2.2.1 Operating Costs of AFEX 8.2.2.2 Drawback of AFEX 8.2.3 Carbon Dioxide Explosion 8.2.4 Liquid Hot Water (LHW) Pretreatment 8.2.5 Mechanical Pretreatment (Grinding and Milling) 8.2.5.1 Mechanical Extrusion 8.2.6 Ultrasound 8.2.7 Microwave Pretreatment 8.2.8 Pulsed-Electric Field (PEF) 8.2.9 Electron Beam (EB) Irradiation 8.2.10 Wet Oxidation 8.2.11 Alkaline Wet Oxidation 8.3 Chemical and Biological Pretreatment 8.3.1 Acid Pretreatments 8.3.2 Alkaline Pretreatments 8.3.3 Organosolv Treatment 8.3.4 Ozone Treatment 8.3.5 Biological Pretreatment 8.4 Pretreatment of Selected Biomass 8.4.1 Physical and Physicochemical Pretreatment of Selected Lignocellulosic Biomass 8.4.1.1 Switch Grass 8.4.1.2 Wheat Straw 8.4.1.3 Cassava Peels 8.4.1.4 Rice Straw 8.4.1.5 Corn Stover 8.4.1.6 Soybean Hull 8.4.2 Chemical and Biological Pretreatment of Selected Lignocellulosic Biomass 8.4.2.1 Rice Straw 8.4.2.2 Wheat Straw 8.4.2.3 Jatropha 8.4.2.4 Cassava Peels 8.4.2.5 Switch Grass 8.4.2.6 Corn Cob 8.4.2.7 Corn Stover 8.4.2.8 Olive Tree 8.4.2.9 Rice Husk 8.5 Conclusion References Chapter 9: Extraction of Multiple Value-Added Compounds from Agricultural Biomass Waste: A Review 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Multi-Objective Fractionation of Agricultural Residues 9.2.1 Fractionation of Fruit Residues for Pectin and Polyphenol Recovery 9.2.1.1 Co-Presence of Pectin and Polyphenols 9.2.1.2 Multi-Objective Fractionation of Fruits Residues to Diversify Pectin Functional Properties 9.2.1.3 Multi-Objective Fractionation to Enhance Polyphenol Yield and Functional Properties 9.2.2 Co-Extraction of Pectin and Polyphenol in Fractionation of Agricultural Residues 9.2.3 Multi-Objective Fractionation of Lignocellulosic Agricultural Residues 9.2.3.1 Multi-Objective Fractionation to Enhance Cellulose Yield and Diversify Functional Properties Nanofibrillated Cellulose Nanocrystalline Cellulose 9.2.3.2 Lignocellulose Pretreatment to Increase Nanocellulose Yield and Extraction Efficiency Physiochemical Pretreatment to Enhance Nanocellulose Extraction from Agricultural Residues Chemical Pretreatment to Enhance Nanocellulose Extraction from Agricultural Residues Organic Solvent Pretreatment to Enhance Nanocellulose Extraction from Agricultural Residues Biological Pretreatment to Enhance Nanocellulose Extraction from Agricultural Residues 9.2.4 Integrated Methods for Multi-Objective Fractionation of Agricultural Residues 9.2.5 Optimization of Multi-Objective of Fractionation of Agricultural Residues 9.2.6 End Applications of Polyphenols, Pectin and Nanocellulose 9.3 Conclusion References Chapter 10: Conversion of Lignocellulosic Biomass to Fuels and Value-Added Chemicals Using Emerging Technologies and State-of-the-Art Density Functional Theory Simulations Approach 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Biomass Conversion Technologies to Fuels and Chemicals 10.2.1 Biochemical Conversion of Biomass to Value-Added Chemicals 10.2.2 Biochemical Composition of Plant Biomass 10.2.3 Biomass Deconstruction 10.2.4 Biomass Fermentation into Fuels and Value-Added Chemicals 10.3 Thermochemical Conversion of Biomass to Fuels and Value-Added Chemicals 10.3.1 Pyrolysis of Lignocellulosic Biomass for Liquid Fuels 10.3.1.1 Slow Pyrolysis 10.3.1.2 Fast Pyrolysis 10.3.1.3 Flash Pyrolysis 10.3.1.4 Hydrogenation 10.3.1.5 Gasification 10.3.2 Hydrothermal Liquefaction (HTL) 10.4 Physiochemical Conversion 10.4.1 Liquid-Phase Catalytic Processing of Biomass-Derived Compounds 10.4.2 Biodiesel and Renewable Diesel from Oil Crops, Waste Oils, and Fats 10.5 Heterogeneous Catalyst in Biomass Conversion and Sate-of-the-Art Density Functional Theory Simulations Approach 10.6 Future Prospects and Challenges of Processing Biomass to Value-Added Products 10.6.1 Economic Importance of Biomass 10.6.1.1 Biomass 10.6.1.2 Food Crops 10.6.1.3 Nonfood/Energy Crops 10.6.1.4 Forest Residues 10.6.1.5 Industrial Process Residues 10.6.2 Prospects of Processing Biomass Conversion to Value-Added Products 10.6.3 Challenges of Processing Biomass Conversion to Value-Added Products 10.6.3.1 Pretreatment Processes 10.6.3.2 Cellulolysis and Fermentation Processes 10.6.3.3 Thermochemical Systems Processes 10.7 Conclusion and Recommendation References Chapter 11: Production and Processing of the Enzymes from Lignocellulosic Biomass 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Lignocellulosic Biomass Features 11.3 Enzyme Production 11.3.1 Cellulases 11.3.2 Hemicellulases 11.3.3 Lignolytic Enzymes 11.4 Challenges in Enzyme Production from Biomass 11.4.1 Environmental Factors 11.4.2 Metal Ions as Inducers and Inhibitors 11.4.3 Enzyme Regulations 11.4.4 Genetic Engineering 11.5 Performance of Hydrolytic Enzymes on Lignocellulosic Biomass 11.5.1 Cellulase 11.5.2 Hemicellulase 11.5.3 Lignolytic Enzymes 11.6 Enzymes as Tools for Biomass Treatment and Value-Added Products 11.7 Enzymatic Immobilization as a Tool for Improved Performance 11.8 Economic Context 11.9 Conclusions and Future Perspectives References Chapter 12: Sustainable Production of Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) Using Biomass-Based Growth Substrates 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Biosynthesis and Genetic Manipulation for the Production of PHA 12.3 Challenges and Opportunities in the Competitive Cost Scale-Up of PHA Production 12.4 Techno-economic Studies on Microbial PHA Production 12.5 Conclusion References Chapter 13: Production and Applications of Pyrolytic Oil and Char from Lignocellulosic Residual Biomass 13.1 Introduction 13.1.1 Generation of ROM in North America 13.1.2 Socioeconomic Aspect 13.1.3 Environmental Impact: Greenhouse Gases and Climate Change 13.1.4 Management of Residual Organic Materials 13.1.4.1 Thermochemical Technologies 13.1.4.2 Trends and Challenges of Thermochemical Valorization 13.2 Technologies to Produce Pyrolytic Oil and Char 13.2.1 Thermochemical Conversion Definition and Principles 13.2.2 Main Technologies to Produce Oil 13.2.3 Main Technologies to Produce Char 13.2.3.1 Available Technologies Pyrolysis Roasting Carbonization 13.2.4 Simulation of Pyrolysis and Gasification Process to Produce Oil and Char Using Aspen Plus® 13.3 Applications of the Pyrolytic Oils and Chars 13.3.1 Pyrolytic Oil 13.3.2 Char 13.3.2.1 Soil Amendment 13.3.2.2 Biofuel 13.3.2.3 Adsorbent 13.3.2.4 Char-Based Catalyst for Chemical Production Catalyst for Biogas Production Catalyst for Bio-oil Production Catalyst for Pollution Control 13.3.2.5 Activated Carbon References Chapter 14: An Investigation into the Potential of Maggot Oil as a Feedstock for Biodiesel Production 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Maggot Oil 14.2.1 Properties and Environmental Production Benefit 14.2.2 Maggot Oil Production and Sustainability Concerns 14.2.3 Composition of Maggot Oil 14.2.4 Application of Maggot Oil in Biodiesel Production 14.3 Experimental 14.3.1 Materials 14.3.2 Experimental Procedure 14.3.2.1 Fatty Acid Content Determination 14.3.2.2 Procedure for Determination of Acid Value 14.3.2.3 Saponification Value Determination 14.3.2.4 Density Measurement 14.3.2.5 Oil Viscosity 14.3.3 Characterization 14.3.3.1 Fatty Acid Characterization 14.3.3.2 Catalyst Characterization 14.3.4 Transesterification of Maggot Oil 14.3.4.1 Homogeneous Catalysis 14.3.4.2 Heterogeneous Catalysis 14.3.4.3 Two-Stage Transesterification of Maggot Oil for Biodiesel Production 14.4 Results and Discussion 14.4.1 Fatty Acid Composition of Maggot Oil 14.4.2 Acid and Saponification Values of Maggot Oil 14.4.3 Viscosity and Density of Maggot Oil 14.4.4 Transesterification of Maggot Oil via Homogeneous Catalysis 14.4.5 Heterogeneous and Two-Stage Catalyzed Transesterification of Maggot Oil 14.4.6 A Comparative Study of Maggot Oil and Sunflower Foil for Biodiesel Production 14.4.7 Physicochemical Properties of Maggot Oil-Biodiesel Produced 14.5 Conclusion References Chapter 15: Biomass Conversion by Pyrolysis Technology 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Methods of Biomass Conversion 15.2.1 Pyrolysis as a Biomass Conversion Method 15.2.2 Types of Pyrolysis 15.2.2.1 Slow Pyrolysis 15.2.2.2 Intermediate Pyrolysis 15.2.2.3 Fast Pyrolysis 15.3 Feedstock for Biomass Pyrolysis 15.3.1 Agricultural Wastes 15.3.2 Industrial Biomass Wastes 15.3.3 Domestic Biomass Residues 15.3.4 Algae 15.4 Factors Affecting Product Yield 15.5 Products of Biomass Pyrolysis and Their Applications 15.5.1 Pyrolysis Oil 15.5.2 Biochar 15.5.3 Gases 15.6 Biomass Pyrolysis Reactors 15.7 Evolving Trends in Biomass Pyrolysis 15.8 Conclusion, Challenges and Future Outlook References Chapter 16: Pyro-gasification of Invasive Plants to Syngas 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Thermochemical Conversion Processes 16.2.1 Conventional Biomass Gasification Process 16.2.1.1 Drying Phase 16.2.1.2 Thermal Decomposition Phase 16.2.1.3 Partial Oxidation Phase 16.2.1.4 Reduction Phase 16.2.1.5 Tar Cracking 16.2.2 Conventional Biomass Pyrolysis 16.3 Tar Reduction Methods and Pyro-gasification 16.3.1 Tar Reduction Methods 16.3.2 Pyro-gasification for Tar Reduction 16.4 Challenges of Pyro-gasification of Invasive Alien Plants (IAPs) 16.4.1 High Ash Tendency 16.4.2 Moisture Content 16.4.3 Volatile Matter and Fixed Carbon Composition 16.4.4 Energy Density 16.4.5 Nitrogen and Sulphur Compounds’ Formation 16.5 Possible Challenges of Scaling Up Pyro-gasification Systems 16.5.1 System Complexity 16.5.2 Oil Blockage in Pipes 16.5.3 Feedstock Compatibility 16.5.4 Downstream Syngas Application 16.6 Conclusion and Recommendations References Chapter 17: Valorisation of Human Excreta for Recovery of Energy and High-Value Products: A Mini-Review 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Human Excreta as a Resource 17.2.1 Human Urine 17.2.2 Human Faeces 17.3 Source Separation of Human Wastes 17.3.1 Composting Toilets 17.3.2 Urine Diverting Dehydration Toilets 17.3.3 Ventilated Improved Pit Latrine 17.3.4 Biogas Toilets 17.4 Solid–Liquid Separation 17.5 Processing of Liquid Waste Streams for Nutrient Recovery 17.6 Solids Processing for Energy and Value-Added Products 17.6.1 Thermal Processes 17.6.2 Pyrolysis 17.6.3 Hydrothermal Carbonisation 17.6.4 Gasification 17.6.5 Combustion 17.6.6 Biological Processes 17.7 Conclusion References Chapter 18: Butanol as a Drop-In Fuel: A Perspective on Production Methods and Current Status 18.1 Introduction 18.1.1 Economic Outlook of Butanol Production 18.1.2 Current Status of Butanol Production 18.2 Biochemical Production Pathways of Butanol 18.2.1 Butanol Production Pathway from First-Generation Feedstock 18.2.1.1 Feedstock for First-Generation Biobutanol Production 18.2.1.2 ABE Fermentation 18.2.1.3 Acidogenesis 18.2.1.4 Solventogenesis 18.2.1.5 Fermentation Techniques 18.2.1.6 Microbes for Biobutanol Production 18.2.2 Butanol Production Pathway from Second-Generation Feedstock 18.2.2.1 Pre-treatment and Hydrolysis Acid Hydrolysis Alkaline Hydrolysis Other Pre-treatment Methods 18.2.3 Butanol from Third-Generation Feedstock 18.2.3.1 Pre-treatment of Microalgae 18.2.4 Challenges Encountered in ABE Fermentation 18.3 Catalytic Conversion of Biomass-Derived Ethanol to Butanol 18.3.1 Dehydrogenation 18.3.2 Aldol Condensation 18.3.3 Dehydration and Hydrogenation 18.4 Butanol Separation Techniques 18.4.1 Recovery Through Distillation 18.4.2 Recovery by Gas Stripping 18.4.3 Recovery by Pervaporation 18.4.4 Recovery Using Liquid–Liquid Extraction 18.4.5 Recovery by Adsorption 18.5 Conclusion References Chapter 19: Biochar as an Adsorbent: A Short Overview 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Adsorption 19.2.1 Types of Adsorption Process 19.2.2 Applications of Adsorption Process 19.2.3 Adsorbents 19.2.4 Commercial Adsorbents 19.2.5 The Need for a Low-Cost Adsorbent (Biochar) 19.3 Biochar 19.3.1 Biochar Production 19.3.1.1 Slow Pyrolysis 19.3.1.2 Fast Pyrolysis 19.3.1.3 Intermediate Pyrolysis 19.3.2 Application of Biochar as an Adsorbent 19.3.3 Treatment of Wastewater Using Biochar 19.3.4 Biochar in Soil Remediation 19.3.5 Mechanism Governing Adsorption Using Biochar 19.4 Conclusion References Chapter 20: Development of Plastic Composite Using Waste Sawdust, Rice Husk and Bamboo in the Polystyrene-Based Resin (PBR) Matrix at Ambient Conditions 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Theoretical Review 20.2.1 Composites 20.2.2 Waste 20.2.2.1 Plastic Waste 20.2.2.2 Styrofoam Waste 20.2.3 Sawdust 20.2.4 Rice Husk 20.2.5 Bamboo 20.3 Materials and Methods 20.3.1 Preparation of Biomass Particulates 20.3.2 Preparation of Polystyrene-Based Resin 20.3.3 Polystyrene-Based Resin Matrix 20.3.4 Preparation of Plastic Composites 20.3.5 Characterisation 20.3.5.1 Mechanical Testing 20.3.5.2 Water Absorption and Diffusion Coefficients 20.4 Results and Discussion 20.4.1 Mechanical Properties of Biomass-Polystyrene Composites 20.4.1.1 Effect of Biomass Content on Force at Peak of Biomass-Polystyrene Composite 20.4.1.2 Effect of Fibre Content on Young’s Modulus of Biomass-Polystyrene Composite 20.4.1.3 Effect of Fibre Content on Elongation at Break on Biomass-Polystyrene Composite 20.4.2 Water Absorption of Biomass-Polystyrene Composites 20.4.3 Microstructure Analysis of Biomass-Polystyrene Composites 20.5 Conclusions References Chapter 21: Development of an Integrated Process for the Production and Recovery of Some Selected Bioproducts From Lignocellulosic Materials 21.1 Introduction 21.2 Classification of Bioproducts 21.2.1 Application of Bioproducts 21.3 Nature of Fermentation Broth 21.4 Bioprocess-Supercritical Fluid Extraction Case Studies 21.4.1 Ethanol: High Volume Product (HVP) Concentration 21.4.2 Acetoin: Intermediate Volume Product (IVP) Concentration 21.4.3 Vanillin: Low Volume Product (LVP) Concentration 21.5 Criteria for Targeted Product Recovery 21.5.1 Separation Techniques for Targeted Fermentation Products 21.5.2 Integrated Bioprocess-Supercritical Extraction Techniques 21.6 Technoeconomic Feasibility of Product Recovery From the Broth: A Case of Integrated Bioprocess-Supercritical Extraction Technique 21.7 Future Outlook References Chapter 22: Separation of Carboxylic Acids: Conventional and Intensified Processes and Effects of Process Engineering Parameters 22.1 Introduction 22.1.1 Biochemical Platform 22.1.2 Thermochemical Platform 22.1.3 Chemical Platform 22.2 Carboxylic Acids/Platform Chemicals 22.2.1 Dissimilar Property Nature of Various Carboxylic Acids 22.2.2 Conventional Processes for Downstream Recovery of Carboxylic Acids 22.2.2.1 Membrane Separation 22.2.2.2 Precipitation 22.2.2.3 Chromatography 22.2.2.4 Distillation Extractive Distillation Molecular Distillation 22.2.2.5 Liquid–Liquid Extraction Solvent Selection Criteria Ionic Liquid Extraction 22.3 Process Intensification (PI) 22.3.1 Separation Through Process Intensification 22.3.1.1 Reactive Extraction 22.3.1.2 Selected Extractants for Carboxylic Acid Recovery 22.3.1.3 Reactive Distillation 22.3.1.4 In Situ Product Removal (ISPR) 22.3.2 Equilibrium Studies Relating to Carboxylic Acid Separation 22.4 Effects of Process Variables 22.4.1 Physical Extraction 22.4.2 Chemical Extraction 22.4.3 Extraction Kinetics 22.4.4 Temperature Effect 22.4.5 pH Effect 22.4.6 Effect of a Mixed System 22.4.7 Effect of Substrates 22.4.8 Water (Polar Component) Co-extraction 22.4.9 Regeneration of Acid and Back Extraction 22.4.10 Toxicity 22.5 Kinetic Studies on Reactive Extraction of Some Carboxylic Acids 22.5.1 Kinetic Model 22.6 Industrial Applications of Intensified Separation Processes 22.7 Conclusion and Outlook References Chapter 23: Advances in Engineering Strategies for Enhanced Production of Lipid in Rhodosporidium sp. from Lignocellulosics and Other Carbon Sources 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Biochemistry of Lipid Accumulation 23.3 Microbial Lipid 23.4 Utilization of Carbon Sources for Lipid Accumulation 23.5 Engineering Strategies 23.6 Future of Rhodosporidium sp. 23.7 Conclusion References Chapter 24: Biotechnological Strategies for Enhanced Production of Biofuels from Lignocellulosic Biomass 24.1 Introduction 24.2 Bioprocessing of Lignocellulosic Biomass 24.2.1 Pretreatment Technologies 24.2.2 Saccharification of Lignocellulosic Biomass 24.2.3 Structural Modifications of Lignocellulosic Biomass 24.3 Fermentation of Hydrolysate into Bioethanol 24.4 Utilization of Molasses Along with Lignocellulosic Biomass for Ethanol Production 24.5 Bioconversion of Lignocellulosic Biomass into Biodiesel 24.6 Conclusion References Chapter 25: Application of Lifecycle Concepts in the Conversion of Biomass to Value-Added Commodities 25.1 Lifecycle Concepts 25.2 Importance and Possible Areas of LCA Application Along the Biomass Value Chain 25.2.1 Current Areas of LCA Application in the Biomass Value Chain 25.2.2 Future Trends in LCA Applications Along the Biomass Conversion to Value-Added Commodities Lifecycle 25.3 Potential Challenges in LCA Application and How to Overcome the Challenges 25.4 How Lifecycle Analysis of Biomass Conversion to Value-Added Products Can Be Conducted 25.4.1 Goal and Scope Definition 25.4.1.1 Goal Definition 25.4.1.2 Scope Definition 25.4.2 Lifecycle Inventory 25.4.3 Lifecycle Impact Analysis 25.4.3.1 Selection of Relevant Impact Categories 25.4.3.2 Classification and Characterization 25.4.3.3 Normalization 25.4.3.4 Grouping and Weighting 25.4.4 Lifecycle Interpretation 25.5 Levels of LCA Rigor 25.5.1 Conceptual LCA 25.5.2 Streamlined LCA 25.5.3 Comprehensive LCA 25.6 Conclusion References Chapter 26: Sustainable Production of Value-Added Commodities from Biomass Feedstocks 26.1 Introduction 26.2 Sustainable Consumption and Production Concepts 26.3 How Sustainability Can Be Achieved Along the Biomass Value Chain 26.3.1 Current Efforts at Achieving Sustainability in the Biomass Value Chain 26.3.2 The Future of Sustainability Efforts Along the Biomass Value Chain 26.4 Drivers, Techniques, and Enablers of Sustainable Consumption and Production 26.4.1 Drivers of Sustainable Biomass and Value-Added Commodities Production 26.4.2 Sustainable Production Techniques for Biomass Conversion to Value-Added Commodities 26.4.3 Enablers of Sustainable Production of Value-Added Commodities from Biomass Feedstock 26.5 Conclusion References Index This book presents the most up-to-date technologies for the transformation of biomass into valuable fuels, chemicals, materials, and products. It provides comprehensive coverage of the characterization and fractionation of various types of biomass and details the many challenges that are currently encountered during this process. Divided into two sections, this book discusses timely topics such as the characterization of biomass feedstock, pretreatment and fractionation of biomass, and describes the process for conversion of biomass to value-added commodities. The authors bring biomass transformational strategies that are yet to be explored to the forefront, making this innovative book useful for graduate students and researchers in academia, government, and industry. Discusses the latest breakthroughs and challenges in biomass transformation Presents approaches for life cycle modelling Describes the most up-to-date technologies for transforming biomass into useful products