Understanding Cultures through Their Key Words: English, Russian, Polish, German, and Japanese (Oxford Studies in Anthropological Linguistics , No 8)

In this groundbreaking book, Wierzbicka demonstrates that every language has its «key concepts» and that these key concepts reflect the core values of the culture. Further, she argues that within a culture-independent analytical framework one can study, compare, and even explain cultures to outsiders through their key concepts. The framework Wierzbicka proposes is the well-known «natural semantic metalanguage» that she developed with her colleagues. For this study, Wierzbicka focuses on four languages and cultures:Japanese , Australian English, Polish, and Russian. She identifies «culture laden» words in each of these languages these words are, in a sense, «untranslatable. « She shows, however, that the words can be «explained» by meansof the semantic metalanguages hypothetical semantic primitives such as someone, something, do, happen, want, say, know, think, good, bad , etc. Contents 8 1. Introduction 12 1. Cultural analysis and linguistic semantics 12 2. Words and cultures 12 3. Different words, different ways of thinking? 16 4. Cultural elaboration and the lexicon 21 5. Word frequencies and cultures 22 6. Key words and core cultural values 26 7. "Culture"—a perilous idea? 28 8. Linguistic and conceptual universals 33 9. "Natural semantic metalanguage": Exit from Babel 34 10. Conclusion 41 2. Lexicon as a Key to Ethno-Sociology and Cultural Psychology: Patterns of "Friendship" Across Cultures 43 1. "Friendship"–a human universal? 43 2. The changing meaning of the English word friend 46 3. Patterns of "friendship" in Russian culture 66 4. Patterns of "friendship" in Polish culture 96 5. Mate—a key to Australian culture 112 6. Conclusion 129 Appendix: Summary of the Formulae 131 3. Lexicon as a Key to Ethno-Philosophy, History, and Politics: "Freedom" in Latin, English, Russian, and Polish 136 1. 'Freedom'—a culture-specific concept 136 2. Libertas 137 3. Freedom 140 4. Liberty 143 5. The older meaning of freedom 147 6. Svoboda 149 7. Volja 155 8. Wolnosc 159 9. Conclusion 163 Appendix: Summary of the Formulae 165 4. Lexicon as a Key to History, Nation, and Society: "Homeland" and "Fatherland" in German, Polish, and Russian 167 1. Different "homelands," different "patriotisms" 167 2. Heimat 167 3. Vaterland 172 4. Ojczyzna 187 5. Rodina 202 6. Conclusion 206 Appendix: Summary of the Formulae 206 5. Australian Key Words and Core Cultural Values 209 1. "Australian culture" 209 2. Australian speech act verbs 213 3. Australian "b-words" (swearwords) 228 4. Conclusion 242 Appendix: Summary of the Formulae 243 6. Japanese Key Words and Core Cultural Values 246 1. How "unique" is Japanese culture? 246 2. Amae 249 3. Enryo 254 4. Wa 259 5. On 265 6. Giri 273 7. Seishin 281 8. Omoiyari 286 9. Conclusion 289 Appendix: Summary of the Formulae 289 Notes 292 References 304 Index 320 A 320 B 320 C 321 D 321 E 322 F 322 G 323 H 323 I 323 J 323 K 323 L 324 M 324 N 324 O 324 P 325 R 325 S 326 T 326 U 327 V 327 W 327 X 327 Y 327 Z 327 Contents......Page 8 2. Words and cultures......Page 12 3. Different words, different ways of thinking?......Page 16 4. Cultural elaboration and the lexicon......Page 21 5. Word frequencies and cultures......Page 22 6. Key words and core cultural values......Page 26 7. "Culture"—a perilous idea?......Page 28 8. Linguistic and conceptual universals......Page 33 9. "Natural semantic metalanguage": Exit from Babel......Page 34 10. Conclusion......Page 41 1. "Friendship"–a human universal?......Page 43 2. The changing meaning of the English word friend......Page 46 3. Patterns of "friendship" in Russian culture......Page 66 4. Patterns of "friendship" in Polish culture......Page 96 5. Mate—a key to Australian culture......Page 112 6. Conclusion......Page 129 Appendix: Summary of the Formulae......Page 131 1. 'Freedom'—a culture-specific concept......Page 136 2. Libertas......Page 137 3. Freedom......Page 140 4. Liberty......Page 143 5. The older meaning of freedom......Page 147 6. Svoboda......Page 149 7. Volja......Page 155 8. Wolnosc......Page 159 9. Conclusion......Page 163 Appendix: Summary of the Formulae......Page 165 2. Heimat......Page 167 3. Vaterland......Page 172 4. Ojczyzna......Page 187 5. Rodina......Page 202 Appendix: Summary of the Formulae......Page 206 1. "Australian culture"......Page 209 2. Australian speech act verbs......Page 213 3. Australian "b-words" (swearwords)......Page 228 4. Conclusion......Page 242 Appendix: Summary of the Formulae......Page 243 1. How "unique" is Japanese culture?......Page 246 2. Amae......Page 249 3. Enryo......Page 254 4. Wa......Page 259 5. On......Page 265 6. Giri......Page 273 7. Seishin......Page 281 8. Omoiyari......Page 286 Appendix: Summary of the Formulae......Page 289 Notes......Page 292 References......Page 304 B......Page 320 D......Page 321 F......Page 322 K......Page 323 O......Page 324 R......Page 325 T......Page 326 Z......Page 327

This book develops the dual themes that languages can differ widely in their vocabularies, and are also sensitive indices to the cultures to which they belong. Wierzbicka seeks to demonstrate that every language has "key concepts," expressed in "key words," which reflect the core values of a given culture. She shows that cultures can be revealingly studied, compared, and explained to outsiders through their key concepts, and that the analytical framework necessary for this purpose is provided by the "natural semantic metalanguage," based on lexical universals, that the author and colleagues have developed on the basis of wide-ranging cross-linguistic investigations. Appealing to anthropologists, psychologists, and philosophers as well as linguists, this book demonstrates that cultural patterns can be studied in a verifiable, rigorous, and non-speculative way, on the basis of empirical evidence and in a coherent theoretical framework.

This work demonstrates that every language has its "key concepts" (expressed in key words) and that these concepts reflect the core values of the culture in question. Examining empirical evidence from five lanuages, and using its own "natural semantic metalanguage" to provide an analytical framework, it shows that cultures can be revealingly studied, compared and explained to outsiders through their key concepts