Trending Topics in Escherichia Coli Research : The Latin American Perspective

The Latin American region has been at the forefront in combating infections caused by Escherichia coli strains in humans, animals, and the environment. The continuous emergence and evolution of pathogenic E. coli strains associated with human and animal infections have demonstrated that (i) groups of related pathogenic E. coli are responsible for most infections caused by this bacterial species; (ii) diverse virulence phenotypes expressed during infection defined each one of these pathogroups; (iii) the geographical distribution of pathogroups in Latin America and the evolution of new isolates was defined by the dominant pathogroup and presence of distinct virulence strains; (iv) acquisition of mobile elements or accumulation of point mutations accelerate the development of antibiotic resistance in some of these strains. The Latin American Coalition for Escherichia coli Research (LACER), a multidisciplinary network of over seventy research groups in eleven Latin American countries and the USA, was established in 2009 to apply One Health principles in defining and combating this pathogen. The previous edition of this text, Escherichia coli in the Americas (c. 2016) was the culmination of their wisdom about E. coli , from its role as a commensal bacterium to its characteristics as a pathogen causing disease in animals and humans. This new edition presents recent advances and contextualizes all aspects of E. coli in a One Health perspective, from the environment, to animals, to humans. It addresses E. coli interactions with host microbiota, CNS, and phages. It includes cutting edge insights on hybrid strains, molecular mechanisms of virulence and pathogenesis, resistance, domestic and wild reservoirs, disease surveillance in Latin America, genomic analysis, food safety, and new therapies. Crucially, it also provides translations and analysis of key reports on Escherichia coli published in Spanish and Portuguese. This book serves as a critical resource for scientists in industry and academia, clinicians managing associated infections, and trainees and students studying basic and clinical aspects of E. coli pathogenesis. Foreword Preface Contents Contributors Chapter 1: WHO Critical Priority Escherichia coli in Latin America: A One Health Challenge for a Post-Pandemic World 1.1 Introduction 1.1.1 Critical Priority E. coli in Brazil 1.1.2 Critical Priority E. coli in Argentina 1.1.3 Critical Priority E. coli in Uruguay 1.1.4 Critical Priority E. coli in Chile 1.1.5 Critical Priority E. coli in Ecuador 1.1.6 Critical Priority E. coli in Bolivia 1.1.7 Critical Priority E. coli in Peru 1.2 Conclusions References Untitled Untitled Chapter 2: Recent Progress on Enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC) and Antibiotic Resistance in Pathogenic E. coli 2.1 General Concepts About ETEC 2.1.1 ETEC Is a Major Human Pathogen 2.1.2 ETEC Can Be a Food and Waterborne Pathogen 2.1.3 Animal ETEC 2.2 Recent Discoveries in Virulence and Pathogenesis 2.3 Epidemiology of ETEC in Latin America 2.4 Deciphering ETEC Evolution and Dissemination Through Genomics 2.5 The Microbiome and ETEC 2.6 ETEC Vaccines 2.7 Updates on Antibiotic Resistance in Intestinal and Extraintestinal E. coli 2.7.1 Antibiotic Resistance in Diarrheagenic E. coli (DEC) 2.7.2 Antibiotic Resistance in Extraintestinal E. coli (ExPEC) References Chapter 3: New Concepts on Domestic and Wild Reservoirs and Transmission of E. coli and Its Environment 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Animal Reservoirs of Several Pathotypes Described in the Last Years 3.2.1 Small Ruminants 3.2.2 Other Ungulates 3.2.3 Pets 3.2.4 Birds 3.2.5 Rodents 3.2.6 Other Reports from Wild Animals 3.3 E. coli Outside the Host 3.3.1 E. coli in the Aquatic Environment: Fecal Source or Adaptation? 3.3.2 E. coli in Soil 3.3.3 E. coli in the Soil of Urban Areas 3.3.4 STEC in the Environment of Farm 3.4 E. coli as a Source of Antimicrobial Resistance 3.4.1 Antimicrobial Resistance Crisis and Commensal E. coli 3.4.2 AMR in the Environment 3.4.3 AMR in the Food 3.4.4 Directionality of Domestic Animals and Humans References Chapter 4: New Molecular Mechanisms of Virulence and Pathogenesis in E. coli 4.1 Introduction 4.2 The Type III Secretion System (T3SS) in E. coli 4.2.1 Architecture of the Type III Secretion System 4.2.2 Hierarchical Substrate Secretion: Molecular Switches 4.3 Type III Secretion System as Targets of Anti-virulence Agents for Pathogenic E. coli 4.4 Role of the Type VI Secretion System (T6SS) in E. coli 4.4.1 Structure of the T6SS 4.4.2 E. coli T6SS Effectors 4.5 Virulence Response of Pathogenic E. coli to the Microbiota 4.5.1 Regulation of E. coli Virulence Factors by the Microbiota 4.5.2 Modulation of E. coli Pathogenesis by Bacterial Proteases 4.5.3 Interbacterial Competition Using the T6SS 4.6 Role of Bacterial Cell Surface Structures in E. coli Biofilm Formation 4.6.1 Levels of Regulation in the Expression of Colonization Factors 4.6.1.1 Regulation at the Pre-transcriptional Level: Phase Variation 4.6.1.2 Regulation at the Transcriptional Level: Regulators and Effectors 4.6.1.3 Regulation at the Post-transcriptional Level 4.6.1.4 Regulation at the Translational Level 4.6.1.5 Regulation at the Post-translational Level 4.7 Cross-Communication Mechanisms Between Pathogenic E. coli and Cell-Host 4.7.1 Functionality and Effect of Bacterial OMVs 4.7.2 STEC and AIEC as Pathogenicity Models of Cross-Communication Mediated by OMVs 4.8 Conclusions References Chapter 5: Bovine Reservoir of STEC and EPEC: Advances and New Contributions 5.1 Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli (STEC) 5.2 Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC) 5.3 Bovine Reservoir 5.4 Prevalence of STEC in Bovines: The Latin American Perspective 5.4.1 STEC in Bovines from Argentina 5.4.2 STEC Prevalence in Bovines from Brazil 5.4.3 STEC in Chilean Cattle 5.4.4 STEC in Cattle from Colombia 5.4.5 STEC Prevalence in Bovine Beef in Paraguay 5.4.6 STEC Prevalence in Dairy Cattle in Uruguay 5.4.7 EPEC Prevalence in Bovines: Latin America 5.5 Serotypes, Virulence Factors, and Resistance Mechanisms in STEC and EPEC Isolated from Cattle 5.6 Antibiotic Resistance 5.7 Biofilm Formation 5.8 Prevention and Control 5.8.1 Animal Diet 5.8.2 Feed Additive 5.8.3 Immunization and Bacteriophage Therapy 5.8.4 Inhibition of STEC Biofilm References Chapter 6: Phages and Escherichia coli 6.1 Brief and General Description of Phages 6.2 Natural Interactions Between Phages and Bacteria 6.3 Phages and STEC 6.3.1 Phages That Encode Shiga Toxins (Stx Phages) 6.3.2 Stx Phages from STEC Strains of Latin America 6.3.3 Stx Phage and HUS Development: The Forgotten Piece 6.4 Bacteriophages as Therapeutic Agents: Advantages and Disadvantages 6.5 Phage Biocontrol/Therapy Against Escherichia coli Pathotypes in Latin America 6.5.1 Phages Against Enteropathogenic E. coli 6.5.2 Phages Against Shiga Toxin-Producing E. coli 6.5.3 Phages Against Uropathogenic E. coli 6.5.4 Phages Tested Against Biofilms Formed by E. coli 6.6 Conclusions References Chapter 7: Insights into Animal Carriage and Pathogen Surveillance in Latin America: The Case of STEC and APEC 7.1 General Concepts 7.2 General Concepts of Shiga Toxin-Producing E. coli (STEC) 7.3 STEC in Animals 7.4 STEC in Animals in Latin American Countries 7.4.1 Chile 7.4.2 Argentina 7.4.3 Brazil 7.5 Foodborne Infection Surveillance in Latin America 7.6 Avian Pathogenic Escherichia coli (APEC) 7.7 APEC in Latin American Countries 7.8 Current Situation in Brazil 7.9 Perspectives and Control References Chapter 8: Shiga Toxin and Its Effect on the Central Nervous System 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Predictors of Neurological Deficits as Worst Risk Factors in Typical HUS 8.3 Deleterious Action of Stx in Neurons 8.4 BBB Functional Loss by Endothelial Cells 8.5 Cerebrospinal Fluid-Brain Barrier Impairment: Involvement of AQP4 8.6 Involvement of Glial Cells in STEC-HUS Encephalopathy 8.6.1 Reactive Astrocytes Triggering Neuroinflammation by STEC Toxins 8.6.2 Heat or LPS Modulate the Microglial Response to Stx 8.6.3 Oligodendrocytes Are Oxidative and Proinflammatory Targets 8.7 Current Pharmacological Treatments Used for STEC-HUS Encephalopathy 8.7.1 Steroid Pulse Therapy 8.7.2 Immunoglobulin G (IgG) Immunoadsorption 8.7.3 Complement Factor Binding Antibody 8.8 Perspectives on Stx-Produced Encephalopathy Treatment 8.9 Conclusion References Chapter 9: Relevance of Escherichia coli in Fresh Produce Safety 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Relevance of Total and Fecal Coliforms and E. coli Detection in Produce 9.2.1 Total and Fecal Coliforms 9.2.2 Isolation and Identification of E. coli (Generic and Pathogenic) in Fresh Produce 9.3 Colonization and Internalization of E. coli 9.3.1 Adherence 9.3.2 Mechanisms of Colonization 9.3.3 Internalization 9.3.4 Biofilms 9.3.5 Other Mechanisms 9.4 Presence of Generic and Diarrheagenic E. coli in Fresh Produce in Latin America 9.5 Sources of Contamination During the Preharvest and Postharvest of Fresh Vegetable Production 9.5.1 Preharvest Factors 9.5.2 Postharvest Factors 9.6 Preventive Measures as Safety Mitigation Strategies in Fresh Produce 9.7 Antimicrobial Alternatives for Postharvest Use in Fresh Vegetables 9.8 Conclusion References Chapter 10: Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment of Hemolytic Uremic Syndrome due to Beef Consumption: Impact of Interventions to Reduce the Presence of Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment (QMRA) 10.3 Antimicrobial Effect of Different Interventions Against STEC on Beef Under Controlled Experimental Conditions 10.4 Antimicrobial Effect of Different Interventions Against STEC on Beef Carcasses in Commercial Abattoirs 10.5 Analysis of Scenarios to Reduce the Probability of Acquiring HUS Associated with Beef Consumption References Chapter 11: An Updated Overview on the Resistance and Virulence of UPEC 11.1 General Characteristics of UPEC 11.2 UPEC Virulence Factors and Pathogenicity 11.2.1 Interaction of UPEC Host Cells 11.3 Mechanisms of Resistance to the Main Antibiotics Used in Clinical Practice Against UPEC 11.3.1 β-Lactam Resistance 11.3.2 Aminoglycoside Resistance 11.3.3 Quinolone Resistance 11.3.4 Sulfamethoxazole-Trimethoprim Resistance 11.3.5 Polymyxin Resistance 11.4 Epidemiology of the Antimicrobial Resistance of UPEC in Latin America 11.5 Alternative Therapeutics and Prevention Against UPEC Strains Causing UTIs 11.5.1 Vaccines 11.5.2 Plant Extracts 11.5.3 Probiotics 11.5.4 Phage Therapy 11.5.5 Additional Approaches References Chapter 12: Interactions of Pathogenic Escherichia coli with Gut Microbiota 12.1 Microbiota in Health and Disease 12.1.1 Crosstalk Between Gut Microbiota and Enteric Pathogens 12.1.1.1 Nutrients Availability 12.1.1.2 Mucus Barrier 12.1.2 Co-infections 12.1.3 Omics Tools for a More Comprehensive View of the Molecular and Physiological Events Underlying Diarrheal Disease 12.1.4 Microbiota Changes During DEC Infections 12.1.4.1 Interactions Between Gut Microbiota and STEC 12.1.4.2 Gut Microbiota in STEC-Infected Patients References Chapter 13: Emergence of Hybrid Escherichia coli Strains 13.1 Hybrid Diarrheagenic E. coli Pathotypes Associated with Human Intestinal Infections 13.2 Hybrid Extraintestinal Pathogenic E. coli: One Pathogen, Two Diseases 13.3 Research Perspectives in the Area 13.4 Potential Clinical Implications of Hybrids (More Severe Clinical Cases?) 13.5 Conclusions References Chapter 14: Genomic Analysis of Pathogenic Escherichia coli Strains in Latin America 14.1 Complexity of the Pathogenic E. coli Diagnosis and Surveillance 14.2 Moving from Conventional Methodologies to Whole-Genome Sequencing: A Brief Tour 14.3 General Approaches for the Implementation of Whole-Genome Sequencing in Latin America 14.4 The E. coli Whole-Genome Sequencing and Data Analysis in Practice 14.5 Driving Toward E. coli Genomic Surveillance in Latin America 14.5.1 Global Framework for Genomic Epidemiology 14.5.2 Specific Strategies for Whole-Genome Sequencing Analysis Applied Worldwide for E. coli Surveillance and Outbreak Investigation 14.5.3 Advances to Tackle the E. coli Genomic Surveillance in Latin America 14.6 Genomics for Identification and Characterization of Virulence Factors and Antimicrobial Resistance 14.7 Omics for Culture-Independent Subtyping of STEC and Outbreak Investigations 14.8 Conclusions References Chapter 15: Therapeutic Options for Diarrheagenic Escherichia coli 15.1 Historical Perspective 15.2 Diarrheagenic Escherichia coli Characteristics and Clinical Description 15.2.1 Enteropathogenic E. coli 15.2.2 Enterotoxigenic E. coli 15.2.3 Enteroaggregative E. coli 15.2.4 Shiga Toxin-Producing E. coli/Enterohemorrhagic E. coli 15.3 Diarrheal Features: Prevention and Management 15.3.1 Dehydrating Diarrhea 15.3.2 Non-STEC Bloody Diarrhea 15.3.3 Bloody Diarrhea/Dysentery and HUS Associated with STEC 15.3.4 Extraintestinal Infections 15.4 Alternative Options for Treatment 15.4.1 Antibodies 15.4.2 Bacteriophage Therapy 15.5 Remarks and Research Perspectives References Index