مقاله‌ای در مورد علم مصب‌ها و سواحل

How to go to your page......Page 2 Cover ......Page 1 Treatise On Estuarine And Coastal Science......Page 3 Copyright......Page 6 Contents Of Volume 1......Page 7 Volume Editors......Page 9 Editors-In-Chief: Biographies......Page 11 Volume Editors: Biographies......Page 13 Contributors Of All Volumes......Page 23 Contents Of All Volumes......Page 33 Preface......Page 39 4.09.1 Introduction......Page 43 4.09.1.1 Estuarine Health......Page 44 4.09.3.1 Normalization of Sedimentary Chemical Data......Page 45 4.09.3.2 Application of Normalization Techniques......Page 46 4.09.3.4 Magnitude of Anthropogenic Change......Page 47 4.09.4 Assessment of Biological Risk Using Sediment Chemistry......Page 48 1.02.1 Introduction......Page 49 1.02.2.1 Variability versus Change......Page 51 1.02.3.1 Geological Factors......Page 53 1.02.3.2 Fluvial and Groundwater Factors......Page 55 1.02.3.3 Wave Factors......Page 56 1.02.3.4 Sea-Level Factors......Page 58 1.02.3.5 Atmospheric Factors......Page 60 1.02.3.6 Biological Factors......Page 61 1.02.3.7 Human Factors......Page 64 1.02.4.1 Variability and the Evolution of Coastal Classifications......Page 65 1.02.4.2 Coastal Settings Based on the Wave–River–Tide Relationship......Page 69 1.02.5 Climate Change and Human Impacts......Page 74 References......Page 76 Relevant Websites......Page 78 1.03.1 Introduction......Page 79 1.03.3 Geomorphic and Stratigraphic Definitions......Page 80 1.03.4 Wave and Tidal Dominance of Estuaries......Page 81 1.03.5 Models of Estuarine Infill......Page 83 1.03.5.1 Barrier Estuaries......Page 85 1.03.5.2 Saline Coastal Lakes......Page 87 1.03.5.3 Fluvially Dominated Estuaries......Page 88 1.03.5.4 Ria-Type Estuaries......Page 89 1.03.5.5 Fjord Valley Infill......Page 90 1.03.5.6 Macrotidal Infill......Page 91 1.03.6.1 Sediment Supply......Page 93 1.03.6.3 Estuarine Response to Vertical Land Movement......Page 95 1.03.7 Future Change in Estuaries......Page 97 References......Page 98 1.04.1 Introduction......Page 103 1.04.2.2 Coastal Geomorphology......Page 104 1.04.2.4 Coastal Processes......Page 106 1.04.2.5 Substrate......Page 107 1.04.3 Examples of Classification Systems......Page 108 1.04.3.4 EUNIS/Joint Nature Conservation Committee Classification System......Page 109 1.04.3.5 ShoreZone Classification......Page 110 1.04.3.7 Shipman Classification......Page 112 1.04.4.2 Data Acquisition Techniques......Page 113 References......Page 115 Relevant Websites......Page 116 1.05.1 Introduction......Page 117 1.05.2.2 Tectonic Estuaries......Page 120 1.05.2.3 Fjords......Page 122 1.05.3 Classification of Gravitational Circulation According to Water Balance......Page 123 1.05.4 Classification of Gravitational Circulation According to the Competition between Tidal Flow and River Discharge......Page 124 1.05.5 Estuarine Circulation......Page 125 References......Page 128 1.06.1 Introduction......Page 129 1.06.2.1 Limiting Nutrients in Estuaries......Page 130 1.06.2.2 Nutrients and Primary Production......Page 131 1.06.3.1 Benthic Respiration......Page 132 1.06.3.2 Benthic Macrofauna......Page 134 1.06.3.3 OM Mineralization, Phosphorus and Nitrogen Cycling under Reducing Conditions......Page 135 1.06.4 Estuarine Classification by Ecosystem Metabolism......Page 136 References......Page 137 1.07.1 Introduction......Page 141 1.07.2 Origins of Present-Day Estuaries and Coasts......Page 144 1.07.3.1 Definitions of Estuaries and Coasts......Page 146 1.07.3.2 Estuarine Classifications......Page 150 1.07.3.3 Coastal Classifications......Page 152 1.07.4.2 Seagrass Beds......Page 156 1.07.4.4 Mangals......Page 157 1.07.5.1 A Primary Coastal Classification......Page 158 1.07.5.2 A Primary Estuarine Classification......Page 160 1.07.5.3 Secondary Classifications of Estuaries and Coasts......Page 161 1.07.6 Coastal Classifications and Climate Change......Page 163 References......Page 164 1.08.1.1 Estuarine Management and the Need for Classifying Ecological Quality......Page 167 1.08.1.2 The Estuarine Quality Paradox and Environmental Homeostasis......Page 168 1.08.2.1 Plankton......Page 171 1.08.2.2 Macroalgae......Page 175 1.08.2.3 Angiosperms......Page 176 1.08.2.4 Macroinvertebrates......Page 177 1.08.2.5 Fishes......Page 181 1.08.3.1 North America......Page 184 1.08.3.2 Europe......Page 187 1.08.3.3 South Africa......Page 189 4.09.4.1 Risk Posed by Single Chemicals using SQGs......Page 191 1.08.3.5 International Methodologies and Comparison across Geographies......Page 193 4.09.4.2 Risk Posed by Chemical Mixtures......Page 197 4.09.5 Application of Techniques Used in Determining MAC and Biological Risk Posed by Sedimentary Chemicals......Page 198 Application of Estuarine and Coastal Classifications in Marine Spatial Management......Page 205 1.09.1 Introduction......Page 206 1.09.1.1 Importance of Spatial, Temporal, and Thematic Resolution......Page 207 1.09.1.3 Examples of Hierarchical Classifications......Page 208 1.09.2 Spatial Characterization Using Marine and Coastal Classifications......Page 209 1.09.2.1 Classifying and Mapping Seascapes of the Scotian Shelf, Northwest Atlantic......Page 210 1.09.2.3 Australian Coastal Classifications......Page 211 1.09.2.4 Marine Characterization of American Samoa......Page 214 1.09.3 Spatial Conservation Prioritization and Evaluation......Page 216 1.09.3.1 Identifying Priority Conservation Areas in the Northwest Atlantic......Page 217 1.09.3.2 Ecological Valuation Index for the Massachusetts Ocean Plan, USA......Page 219 1.09.4.2 Multiple-Use Zoning in the Irish Sea, UK......Page 220 1.09.4.3 Massachusetts Ocean Plan......Page 221 1.09.5.2 Mapping and Classifying Fishing Effort in the UK......Page 223 1.09.5.3 Examining Conflicts between Fishing and Conservation in the German North Sea......Page 224 1.09.6 Optimizing Environmental Monitoring......Page 225 1.09.7.1 NOAA CoastWatch Change Analysis Program Change Detection......Page 226 1.09.7.3 Tracking Coastal Habitat Change in Louisiana, USA......Page 227 1.09.7.4 Mangrove Change Detection in Southeast Asia......Page 228 1.09.8 Environmental Risk Assessment and Human Impacts......Page 229 1.09.8.1 Environmental Sensitivity Index Mapping......Page 230 4.09.5.1 Coastal Monitoring and Assessment Program in NSW, Australia......Page 231 1.09.8.4 Classifying and Mapping Human Impacts in Hawaii......Page 232 1.09.9.1 Australian Environmental Condition Assessment Framework......Page 233 4.09.6.1 Hindsight and Predictive Modeling of Change in Human Impact and Biological Risk......Page 235 1.09.10.1 Targeting Wetlands for Restoration in North Carolina, USA......Page 236 1.09.10.2 Identifying and Prioritizing Restoration Sites in Puget Sound, Oregon, USA......Page 237 4.09.7 Conclusions......Page 238 References......Page 240 1.09.12.1 Linking Patterns and Processes in Ecological Classifications......Page 241 References......Page 243 References......Page 247 1.10.1 Geospatial Data Acquisition Tools......Page 249 1.10.1.1 Topographic Maps and Bathymetry......Page 250 1.10.1.2 Attribute Map Based on Remote Sensing......Page 251 1.10.2 Data Management Tools......Page 252 1.10.3.1 National Coastal Assessment and Data Synthesis......Page 254 1.10.3.2 National Wetland Inventory......Page 256 1.10.3.3 Research and Observation......Page 257 1.10.3.4 Wetland Delineation Tool......Page 258 1.10.3.6 Integrated Information Management System and Coastal Planning......Page 259 1.10.4.2 Worldwide Thematic Dissemination......Page 260 1.10.4.3 Worldwide Knowledge Base......Page 264 References......Page 269 Relevant Websites......Page 270 Treatise On Estuarine And Coastal Science......Page 271 Copyright......Page 274 Contents Of Volume 2 ......Page 275 Volume Editors......Page 277 Editors-In-Chief: Biographies......Page 279 Volume Editors: Biographies......Page 281 Contributors Of All Volumes......Page 291 Contents Of All Volumes......Page 301 Preface ......Page 307 2.01.1 Introduction......Page 311 2.01.2 Buoyancy and Its Consequences......Page 312 2.01.3 Barotropic and Wind-Driven Motions......Page 313 2.01.4 Coastal and Estuarine Interactions......Page 315 2.01.6 Measurements and Modeling......Page 316 References......Page 317 Turbulence and Stratification in Estuaries and Coastal Seas......Page 319 2.02.2 Turbulence, Shear, and Stratification......Page 320 2.02.3 Turbulence in Estuaries......Page 326 2.02.4 Turbulence in River Plumes......Page 333 2.02.5 Turbulence in Coastal Seas......Page 337 References......Page 343 2.03.1 Introduction......Page 347 2.03.2 Parameters Controlling Estuarine Stratification......Page 349 2.03.3 The Two-Layer Equations......Page 351 2.03.4 Salt Wedge Dynamics......Page 352 2.03.5 Fjord Dynamics......Page 356 2.03.6 Unresolved Questions and Prospects for Future•Research......Page 359 References......Page 361 2.04.1 Introduction......Page 363 2.04.2 Plume Fronts......Page 365 2.04.3 Axial Convergence Fronts......Page 368 2.04.4 Tidal Intrusion Fronts......Page 371 2.04.5 Shear Fronts......Page 377 2.04.6 Summary and Discussion......Page 381 2.04.7 Final Remarks......Page 382 References......Page 383 2.05.2 Salt Balance......Page 385 2.05.3 Physics of the Gravitational Circulation......Page 390 2.05.4 Physics of Tidal Salt Flux and Dispersion......Page 395 2.05.5 Summary and Conclusions......Page 397 References......Page 398 2.06.1 The Governing Equations for Estuaries and Coastal Regions......Page 401 2.06.2 Some More Simplifications for Barotropic Motions......Page 403 2.06.3 Tidal Oscillations or Seiche within One-dimensional Channels with Constant Width and•Depth......Page 404 2.06.4 Importance of Rotation......Page 406 2.06.5 Tidal Oscillations or Seiche within Two-Dimensional Channels with Constant Width and•Variable Depth......Page 408 2.06.6 Tidal Oscillations or Seiche within Three-Dimensional Channels with Constant Width and Variable Depth......Page 413 2.06.7 Sub-Tidal Flows – Idealized Models......Page 415 2.06.8 Sub-Tidal Flows – Observations......Page 420 2.06.9 Sub-Tidal Flows – Separation of Tidally-Driven and Density-Driven Flows from Observations......Page 423 2.06.10 Effect of Channel Curvature......Page 426 References......Page 431 2.08.2 Background......Page 451 2.08.3 The Fluctuating Tide......Page 454 2.08.4 Residual Tidal Circulation......Page 455 2.08.5 Wind-Driven Circulation......Page 456 2.08.6 Density-Driven Circulation......Page 457 References......Page 458 2.07.2 Tidal Residual Flow......Page 433 2.07.3 Wind-Driven Flow......Page 438 2.07.4 Density-Driven Flows......Page 441 2.07.5 Density-Driven Flows Interacting with Tidal Flows......Page 444 2.07.6 Density-Driven Flows Interacting with Tides and•Wind......Page 445 2.07.7 Conclusions......Page 448 References......Page 449 2.09.1 Introduction......Page 461 2.09.2 The Logarithmic Layer......Page 462 2.09.3 Local Wind Stress in an Estuary......Page 465 2.09.4 Remote Wind Forcing......Page 470 2.09.5 Modeling Wind Stresses in Stratified, Tidal Systems......Page 472 2.09.6 Discussion......Page 475 References......Page 476 2.10.1 Introduction......Page 481 2.10.2 Waves in Shallow Water......Page 482 2.10.3 Observing Waves in Shallow Water......Page 487 2.10.4 Wave Climate......Page 488 2.10.5 Wave Modeling......Page 490 2.10.6 Wave–Current Interaction......Page 503 Relevant Websites......Page 512 2.10.8 Summary......Page 517 References......Page 518 Relevant Websites......Page 522 2.11.1 Introduction......Page 523 2.11.2 Scaling of River Plumes......Page 524 2.11.3 The Near Field......Page 525 2.11.4 Plume Structure......Page 527 2.11.5 Upwelling Winds......Page 530 2.11.7 Bulge Formation......Page 536 References......Page 544 Coastal Circulation......Page 547 2.12.1 Introduction......Page 548 2.12.2 Tidally Driven Circulation......Page 551 2.12.3 Density-Driven Circulation......Page 557 2.12.4 Wind-Driven Circulation......Page 564 2.12.6 Case Study: Liverpool Bay......Page 565 2.12.7 Ways Forward......Page 570 References......Page 575 Relevant Websites......Page 576 2.13.2 Flow at the Scale of Individual Blades and Branches......Page 577 2.13.3 Community-Scale: Meadows, Forests, and Reefs......Page 580 References......Page 596 2.14.2 Effect of Microphytobenthos and Macrofauna on Sediment Erodibility......Page 599 2.14.3 Biological Influence on Sediment Aggregation and Settling Velocity......Page 607 2.14.4 Vegetation and Sediment Transport......Page 611 2.14.5 Modeling of Biological Impact on Sediment Accumulation......Page 614 References......Page 617 2.15.1 Introduction......Page 621 2.15.2 Classification of Transport Modes......Page 623 2.15.3 Settling and Deposition from Suspension......Page 626 2.15.4 Hindered Settling and Consolidation......Page 637 2.15.5 Bed Properties......Page 642 2.15.6 Erosion......Page 650 2.15.7 Fluid Mud Behavior......Page 658 References......Page 669 Measurement Technologies: Measure What, Where, Why, and How ......Page 671 2.16.1 Introduction......Page 672 2.16.2 In Situ Measurements......Page 675 2.16.3 Remote Sensing......Page 692 2.16.4 Real-Time Monitoring......Page 699 2.16.5 Developing a Monitoring Strategy......Page 701 References......Page 702 Relevant Websites......Page 704 Modeling of Estuarine and Coastal Waters......Page 705 2.17.2 The Governing Equations......Page 706 2.17.3 Data Assimilation......Page 709 2.17.4 Examples of Current 3D Models and Their Applications......Page 711 2.17.5 Depth-Averaged 2D Models and Their Applications......Page 721 2.17.6 Long Timescale Models......Page 727 2.17.7 Final Remarks......Page 733 References......Page 734 Relevant Websites......Page 737 Volume 3 ......Page 739 Copyright......Page 742 Contents Of Volume 1......Page 743 Volume Editors......Page 745 Editors-In-Chief: Biographies......Page 747 Volume Editors: Biographies......Page 749 Contributors Of All Volumes......Page 759 Contents Of All Volumes......Page 769 Preface ......Page 775 3.01.2 Scope......Page 779 References......Page 783 3.02.1 Introduction......Page 785 3.02.2.1 The Igneous Heritage of Sedimentary Rocks......Page 786 3.02.2.3 Modern Terrestrial Sediment Supply......Page 789 3.02.2.4 Modern Marine Sediment Supply......Page 791 3.02.3.1 Coastal Classification......Page 794 3.02.3.2 Relationships between Beach Morphodynamics, Wave Climate, and Grain Size......Page 795 3.02.3.3 Beach Placer Deposits......Page 797 3.02.4.1 Definition of an Estuary......Page 798 3.02.4.2 Classification of Estuaries......Page 800 3.02.4.3 Estuarine Sedimentology......Page 802 3.02.5.1 Grain-Size Classification......Page 804 3.02.6.1 Definition of Basic Mass Physical Sediment Parameters......Page 805 3.02.6.2 Applications of Mass Physical Sediment Parameters......Page 809 3.02.7 Sampling Strategies......Page 811 References......Page 812 Sea-Level Change and Coastal Geomorphic Response......Page 817 3.03.2.1 Relative Sea-Level Change......Page 818 3.03.2.2 Measuring Sea-Level Change......Page 819 3.03.2.3 Geophysical Models of GIA......Page 821 3.03.2.5 How Much Has Sea Level Changed ......Page 822 3.03.3 Drivers of Coastal Change......Page 823 3.03.4.1 Tide-Dominated Environments......Page 826 3.03.4.2 Beaches......Page 829 3.03.4.3 Barrier Environments......Page 832 3.03.4.4 Deltas......Page 834 3.03.4.5 Cliffs and Shore Platforms......Page 836 3.03.4.6 Coastal Dunes......Page 839 3.03.4.7 Coral Atolls......Page 840 3.03.5 Managing Coastal Change......Page 842 References......Page 843 Relevant Websites......Page 850 Wave-Dominated Coasts......Page 851 3.04.1.1 Wave-Dominated Coasts: Definition......Page 852 3.04.1.2 Beach and Barrier System Characteristics......Page 853 3.04.2.1 Definition of Waves, Form, and Orbital Motion......Page 855 3.04.2.2 Wave Generation and Propagation: Sea and Swell......Page 856 3.04.2.3 Wave Climate and Global Wave Regimes......Page 859 3.04.2.4 Wave Shoaling and Wave Refraction......Page 860 3.04.2.5 Wave Breaking, Surf Zone, and Swash......Page 861 3.04.3.1 Wave Oscillatory Currents......Page 863 3.04.3.2 Tide- and Wind-Generated Currents......Page 864 3.04.3.3 Surf Zone Currents......Page 865 3.04.4.1 Boundary Layers and Initiation of Motion......Page 868 3.04.4.2 Onshore–Offshore Sediment Transport......Page 869 3.04.4.3 Longshore Sediment Transport and Littoral Sediment Budget......Page 870 3.04.5.1 Beach and Nearshore Sediments of Sandy Systems......Page 872 3.04.5.2 Profile Form of Sandy Beach Systems......Page 873 3.04.5.3 Morphodynamics of Sandy Beach Systems......Page 875 3.04.6.1 Morphological and Sedimentological Characteristics of Barriers......Page 881 3.04.6.2 Structure and Components of Barrier Systems......Page 883 3.04.6.3 Barrier Dynamics: Overwash, Breaching, and Tidal Inlets......Page 885 3.04.6.4 Sandy Barrier Spits and Barrier Islands......Page 887 References......Page 889 3.05.2 Definitions......Page 895 3.05.3 Sediment Delivery from Rivers......Page 896 3.05.4 The Historical Development of Delta Studies......Page 897 3.05.5 Classification of River Mouths on the Basis of Process......Page 901 3.05.6 Morphology of Deltas......Page 902 3.05.7 Delta and Estuary Components......Page 903 3.05.8 Asian Mega Deltas......Page 905 3.05.9 River-Dominated Systems in Australia......Page 907 3.05.10 Human Impacts......Page 908 References......Page 910 Tidal Flat Morphodynamics: A Synthesis......Page 915 3.06.1.2 Definition of Morphodynamics and Concept of Dynamic Equilibrium......Page 916 3.06.1.3 Tidal Asymmetry: Importance and Basic Types......Page 917 3.06.2.1 Lagrangian Asymmetry, Concentration Gradients, and Lag-Induced Dispersion......Page 918 3.06.2.2 Nature of Tide- and Wave-Induced Spatial Energy Gradients......Page 919 3.06.2.3 Observations of Net Transport on Tidal Flats due to Waves versus Tides......Page 920 3.06.2.4 Observations of Net Transport on Tidal Flats due toOther Sediment Sources or Sinks......Page 922 3.06.3.1 Definitions and Types of Eulerian Asymmetry......Page 924 3.06.3.2 Eulerian Velocity Asymmetries Induced by Continuity Alone......Page 925 3.06.3.3 Eulerian Asymmetries Induced by Momentum plus Continuity......Page 926 3.06.3.4 Observations of Eulerian Asymmetries andResulting Sediment Transport......Page 927 3.06.4.1 Convex-Up Profile in Response to Uniform Maximum Tidal Velocity......Page 928 3.06.4.2 Equilibrium Shape in Response to Tidal Range and Sediment Supply......Page 929 3.06.4.3 Equilibrium in Response to Persistent Tidal Asymmetries......Page 930 3.06.4.5 A Solution to Predict Tidal Flat Width in Response to Waves......Page 932 3.06.4.7 Predictions of Equilibria in the Presence of Waves, Tides, and Sediment Supply......Page 933 3.06.5.1 Profile Convexity/Concavity as a Function of Tidal Range and Wave Exposure......Page 934 3.06.5.2 Profile Width and Slope as a Function of Tidal Range and Wave Exposure......Page 935 3.06.5.3 Depositional versus Erosional Flats......Page 937 3.06.5.4 Combined Effects of Tides, Waves and Recent Erosion or Deposition......Page 938 3.06.6.1 Timescales of Change......Page 940 3.06.6.2 Mean Grain-Size Patterns......Page 941 3.06.6.3 Time-Varying Grain-Size Patterns......Page 942 3.06.7 Summary and Conclusions......Page 943 References......Page 947 3.07.1 Introduction......Page 949 3.07.2.1 Mechanical Wave Erosion......Page 950 3.07.2.2 Weathering......Page 955 3.07.2.3 Biological Activities......Page 957 3.07.3 Geology......Page 958 3.07.4.1 Bays, Headlands, and Related Features......Page 960 3.07.4.2 Cliffs......Page 961 3.07.4.3 Shore Platforms......Page 963 3.07.6 Inheritance......Page 965 3.07.7 Rising Sea Level......Page 966 References......Page 967 Dune Coasts......Page 971 3.08.3 Why Do Dunes Form ......Page 972 3.08.4 Where Do Sand Dunes Form ......Page 973 3.08.5 Foredunes......Page 974 3.08.5.1 Incipient Foredunes......Page 975 3.08.5.2 Established Foredunes......Page 976 3.08.6 Foredune Plains (and Beach Ridges)......Page 978 3.08.7.1 Morphologies and Types......Page 980 3.08.7.3 Flow Dynamics......Page 981 3.08.8.1 Location......Page 982 3.08.8.3 Initiation......Page 983 3.08.8.4 Morphology......Page 985 3.08.9 Transgressive Dunefields......Page 986 3.08.9.1 Location......Page 987 3.08.9.4 Transgressive Dunefield Landforms......Page 988 3.08.10.2 Beach–Backshore Width and Morphology, Fetch, and Potential Aeolian Transport......Page 990 3.08.10.5 Foredune Stability and Type, Erosion Processes, and Dunefield Development......Page 991 References......Page 992 3.09.1 Introduction......Page 1001 3.09.1.1 Glaciated, Glacial, and Paraglacial Coasts......Page 1002 3.09.1.2 Timescales of Paraglacial Coastal Evolution......Page 1003 3.09.1.4 Classification of Glacial, Proglacial, and Paraglacial Coasts......Page 1004 3.09.2.2 Glacial Sedimentation......Page 1005 3.09.2.3 Paraglacial Legacy and Sediment Cascade......Page 1006 3.09.3.1 Ice Walls, Ice Shelves, and Tidewater Glaciers......Page 1007 3.09.3.2 Proglacial Sediment Sources and Coastal Deposits......Page 1008 3.09.3.3 The Proglacial–Paraglacial Continuum......Page 1009 3.09.4.1 Fjord-Head and Other Paraglacial Deltas......Page 1010 3.09.4.2 Paraglacial Coasts with Abundant Glacigenic Sediment Supply......Page 1012 3.09.4.3 Embayed Coasts with Limited Glacigenic Sediment Supply......Page 1013 3.09.4.4 Transgressive Coasts with Discrete Glacigenic Sources – Drumlin Coasts......Page 1014 3.09.4.5 Evolutionary Sequences and Classification of Paraglacial Barriers......Page 1015 3.09.5.3 Management Considerations for Paraglacial Gravel Barriers......Page 1017 References......Page 1018 3.10.1.2 Ice as the Distinguishing Feature of Polar and Subpolar Coasts......Page 1023 3.10.1.3 Relative Sea-Level Trends on Polar Coasts......Page 1026 3.10.2 Arctic and Antarctic Coastal Geomorphology......Page 1027 3.10.2.1 Arctic Coastal Geomorphology......Page 1029 3.10.2.2 Antarctic Coastal Geomorphology......Page 1034 3.10.3.2 Polar Marine Processes: Sea Ice and Shore Ice......Page 1038 3.10.3.3 Erosion and Sedimentation Processes on Polar Coasts......Page 1045 3.10.3.4 Coastal Permafrost and Erosion of Ice-Rich Shores......Page 1046 3.10.4 Morpho-Sedimentary Features of Polar Coasts......Page 1048 3.10.4.1 Ice-Bound Shores......Page 1049 3.10.4.3 Polar Deltas......Page 1050 3.10.4.4 Polar Coastal Marshes......Page 1052 Acknowledgments......Page 1053 References......Page 1054 3.11.1 Introduction......Page 1063 3.11.2.1 Global Warming......Page 1065 3.11.2.2 Rising Sea Levels......Page 1066 3.11.2.3 Increasing Storm Intensities and Wave Heights......Page 1067 3.11.3 Environmental Modifications and Coastal Impacts......Page 1069 3.11.4.1 Rising Sea Levels and Eroding Beaches......Page 1077 3.11.4.2 Process-Based Erosion Models: Extreme Waves and Water Levels......Page 1079 3.11.5 Responses to Erosion in a Century of Climate Change......Page 1081 3.11.6 Summary and Discussion......Page 1084 References......Page 1085 Treatise On Estuarine And Coastal Science......Page 1087 Copyright......Page 1090 Contents Of Volume 4 ......Page 1091 Volume Editors......Page 1093 Editors-In-Chief: Biographies......Page 1095 Volume Editors: Biographies......Page 1097 Contributors Of All Volumes......Page 1107 Contents Of All Volumes......Page 1117 Preface ......Page 1123 Introduction to the Geochemistry of Estuaries and Coasts......Page 1127 4.02.1 Introduction......Page 1135 4.02.2 Sources and Stable Isotopic Compositions of C, N, P, and Si......Page 1138 4.02.2.1 River and Groundwater Inputs......Page 1140 4.02.3 C, N, P, and Si in Estuarine and Coastal Sediments......Page 1142 4.02.3.1 Organic Carbon in Sediments......Page 1143 4.02.3.2 Nitrogen in Sediments......Page 1146 4.02.3.3 Phosphorus in Sediments......Page 1147 4.02.4.1 Mechanisms of Biodiagenesis......Page 1149 4.02.4.3 Humber Estuary Case Study: Differentiating Biodiagenetic Signatures from Source Effects in Sediment Stores ......Page 1151 4.03.2.1 Biogeochemical Significance of Estuaries and the Coastal Ocean......Page 1165 4.03.2.2 Benthic Processes and Benthic–Pelagic Coupling......Page 1166 4.03.3.1 Controls on Faunal Communities......Page 1167 4.03.3.2 Faunal Roles in Sediment Biogeochemistry and Benthic–Pelagic Coupling......Page 1171 4.03.4.1 Tracer Studies of Faunal Feeding and Metabolic Processes......Page 1172 The Role of Suspended Particles in Estuarine and Coastal Biogeochemistry......Page 1197 4.04.1.2 The Estuarine Turbidity Maximum Zone......Page 1198 4.04.1.3 Physical Characteristics of SPM......Page 1199 4.04.1.4 Chemical Characteristics of SPM......Page 1203 4.04.1.5 Particle–Water Interactions......Page 1204 4.04.2.1 Nitrogen......Page 1206 4.04.2.2 Phosphorus......Page 1211 4.04.3.2 Effect of Estuarine Variables on POP Partitioning......Page 1214 4.04.3.3 Emerging Contaminants......Page 1215 4.04.4.2 Inorganic Complexation on SPM......Page 1216 4.04.4.3 Organic Complexation on SPM......Page 1217 4.04.4.4 Particle Dynamics and Sediment Resuspension......Page 1218 4.04.4.5 Coastal Export and Sediment Resuspension......Page 1219 4.04.5.1 Natural and Anthropogenic Radionuclides......Page 1220 4.04.5.2 Particle–Water Interactions of Radionuclides......Page 1222 4.04.5.3 Distributions and Processes: Case Studies......Page 1223 4.04.6.1 Chemical and Coupled Chemical-Transport Models......Page 1225 4.04.6.2 Chemical Models......Page 1226 4.04.6.3 Coupled Chemical-Transport Models......Page 1228 4.04.7 Conclusions and Future Research......Page 506 Relevant Websites......Page 511 4.05.1 Introduction......Page 1241 4.05.2.2 Redox Processes in Sediments, Floodplain Soils, and Surface Waters......Page 1242 4.05.3.1 Stratification, Mixing, and Redox Zones in Surface Water......Page 1243 4.05.3.2 Redox Zones in Bottom Sediments......Page 1244 4.05.3.3 Redox Zones in Estuarine Wetlands, Mudflats, and Tidal Marshes......Page 1246 4.05.4.1 Factors Affecting Metal Speciation in (Sub)Oxic Sediments and Surface Waters......Page 1248 4.05.4.2 Metal Species Transformations during Reduction in Anoxic Sediments and Surface Waters......Page 1251 4.05.4.3 Carbonates and pH......Page 1256 4.05.4.4 Release of Metals during Sediment Disturbance Events......Page 1257 4.05.4.6 Metal Mobility in the Rhizosphere of Floodplain and Marsh Vegetation as Affected by Oxygen Supply......Page 1260 4.05.5.1 Sequential Extraction Procedures......Page 1261 4.05.5.2 Acid-Volatile Sulfides and Simultaneously Extracted Metals......Page 1262 4.05.5.4 Future Developments......Page 1264 References......Page 1265 4.06.1 Introduction......Page 1269 4.06.2 Methodologies and Their Effect on Our Perceptions of Colloid Aggregation......Page 1270 4.06.3.1 Terrigenous Sources......Page 1273 4.06.4.1 Principles of Aggregation......Page 1275 4.06.4.2 Experimental Findings......Page 1277 4.06.4.3 Coupled Aggregation–Settling......Page 1279 4.06.5.1 Organic Carbon......Page 1280 4.06.5.2 Iron......Page 1281 4.06.5.3 Other Elements......Page 1282 4.06.6 Some Closing Remarks......Page 1283 References......Page 358 Modeling Organic Compounds in the Estuarine and Coastal Environment......Page 1287 4.07.1.2 Chemical Compounds......Page 1288 4.07.2 Water-Quality Models......Page 1289 4.07.2.1 Historical Developments......Page 1290 4.07.3.2 Analytical and Numerical Models......Page 1291 4.07.3.5 Thermodynamic (Fugacity) and Kinetic Models......Page 1292 4.07.3.6 Box Models and Compartments......Page 1293 4.07.3.7 Mass-Balance Models......Page 1294 4.07.5.1 Processes......Page 1296 4.07.5.2 Parameters......Page 1302 4.07.6.1 Physical Boundaries......Page 1305 4.07.6.3 Ocean......Page 1307 4.07.6.4 Sources......Page 1309 4.07.7.2 Multimedia Mass-Balance Models......Page 1311 4.07.7.3 Bioaccumulation Models......Page 1318 4.07.8.1 Verification, Calibration, and Validation......Page 1320 4.07.8.3 The Optimal Model......Page 1321 4.07.9.3 From Hazard to Risk......Page 1322 4.07.9.6 Monitoring......Page 1323 Acknowledgment......Page 510 Submarine Groundwater Discharge: A Source of Nutrients, Metals, and Pollutants to the Coastal Ocean......Page 1331 4.08.1 Introduction......Page 1332 4.08.1.2 Measurement of SGD......Page 1333 4.08.2.1 Fresh versus Saline Groundwater Discharge......Page 1338 4.08.2.2 Temporal Variability in SGD......Page 1339 4.08.2.4 Comparison of SGD Fluxes to Input from Other Water Sources......Page 1340 4.08.3.1 Nutrient Concentrations in Coastal Groundwater......Page 1341 4.08.3.2 SGD-Related Nutrient Fluxes into Coastal Waters......Page 1342 4.08.3.4 Summary and Conclusions......Page 1343 4.08.4.1 Metal Concentrations in Coastal Groundwater......Page 1344 4.08.4.2 Metal Species and Transformations in the Subterranean Estuary......Page 1345 4.08.4.4 Effects of SGD-Derived Metals in Coastal Waters......Page 1346 4.08.5.2 FIB and Other Microbes......Page 1347 4.08.5.4 Pesticides......Page 1348 4.08.6 SGD and Climate Change......Page 1349 4.08.6.2 SGD Quantity......Page 1350 4.08.6.3 SGD Chemistry and Quality......Page 1351 4.08.7.2 SGD at the Local, Regional, and Global Scales......Page 1352 4.08.7.4 Current and Future Research Directions......Page 1353 References......Page 1354 Indicators of Anthropogenic Change and Biological Risk in Coastal Aquatic Environments......Page 1361 The Production of Trace Gases in the Estuarine and Coastal Environment......Page 1397 4.10.2.1 Conceptual Framework......Page 1398 4.10.2.2 The Schmidt Number......Page 1399 4.10.2.3 Wind-Related Turbulence......Page 1400 4.10.2.5 Wave Breaking and Bubbles......Page 1401 4.10.2.7 Rainfall......Page 1402 4.10.2.9 Microscale Wave Breaking......Page 1403 4.10.2.11 The Biology of the Sea-Surface Microlayer......Page 1404 4.10.2.13 Gas Exchange Measurements in Estuaries and Shallow Coastal Waters......Page 1405 4.10.3 Trace Gas Cycling in Estuaries and Coastal Seas......Page 1407 4.10.3.1 Carbon Dioxide......Page 268 4.10.3.2 Methane......Page 1410 4.10.3.3 Nitrous Oxide......Page 1412 4.10.3.4 Carbon Monoxide......Page 1413 4.10.3.5 Dimethyl Sulfide......Page 1415 4.10.3.6 Carbonyl Sulfide......Page 1416 4.10.3.7 Carbon Disulfide......Page 1417 4.10.3.10 A The study of estuaries and coasts has seen enormous growth in recent years, since changes in these areas have a large effect on the food chain, as well as on the physics and chemistry of the ocean. As the coasts and river banks around the world become more densely populated, the pressure on these ecosystems intensifies, putting a new focus on environmental, socio-economic and policy issues. Written by a team of international expert scientists, under the guidance of Chief Editors Eric Wolanski and Donald McClusky, the Treatise on Estuarine and Coastal Science, Ten Volume Set examines topics in depth, and aims to provide a comprehensive scientific resource for all professionals and students in the area of estuarine and coastal science Most up-to-date reference for system-based coastal and estuarine science and management, from the inland watershed to the ocean shelf Chief editors have assembled a world-class team of volume editors and contributing authors Approach focuses on the physical, biological, chemistry, ecosystem, human, ecological and economics processes, to show how to best use multidisciplinary science to ensure earth's sustainability Provides a comprehensive scientific resource for all professionals and students in the area of estuarine and coastal science Features up-to-date chapters covering a full range of topics