TRANSITION AND CHALLENGE: CHINA'S POPULATION AT THE BEGINNING OF THE 21ST CENTURY; ED. BY ZHONGWEI ZHAO

With the largest population in the world, China has experienced significant demographic, social, and economic changes in recent decades. Extraordinary demographic changes took place in China in the second half of the twentieth century having wide-ranging consequences. This book, written by a group of leading experts, examines these profound changes in an effort to understand their long term impact and provide an up-to-date account of China's demographic reality. The volume provides a comprehensive and authoritative analysis of a wide range of issues such as China's unprecedented family planning program, the impact of falling birth rates coupled with increasing life expectancy, changes in marriage patterns, and increasing rural-urban migration. Anyone who is interested in China and its recent demographic changes will benefit from the rich materials and thorough analysis provided in this book. Contents......Page 6 List of Figures......Page 10 List of Tables......Page 12 List of Contributors......Page 14 1. Introduction......Page 16 1.1 Rapid Demographic Transition......Page 17 1.2 Major Demographic Challenges......Page 20 1.3 Demographic Research in China......Page 24 1.4 The Production and Organization of this Book......Page 27 2. Family Planning During the Economic Reform Era......Page 33 2.1 Trajectory of China’s Population Policy......Page 34 2.2 Policy Implementation in the Economic Reform Era......Page 37 2.3 Achievements, Consequences, and Future Policy Prospects......Page 44 2.4 Conclusions......Page 47 3. The Politics of Numbers: Fertility Statistics in Recent Decades......Page 49 3.1 Fertility Data Since the Start of the One-Child Policy......Page 50 3.2 The Role of Birth-Planning Policies......Page 55 3.3 Procedures and Implementation Problems in the 2000 Census......Page 59 3.4 Census Data and Adjustment Approaches......Page 63 3.5 Conclusions......Page 67 4. Below Replacement Fertility in Mainland China......Page 69 4.1 Fertility Decline Before 1990......Page 70 4.2 Fertility Levels in the 1990s......Page 73 4.3 Comparing Fertility Levels from Different Data Sources......Page 78 4.4 Tempo Adjusted TFR versus Conventional TFR......Page 82 4.5 Conclusions......Page 85 5.1 Fertility Decline in Hong Kong and Taiwan......Page 86 5.2 Tempo Effects on TFRs Since 1976......Page 89 5.3 Recuperation Effects on Period Fertility......Page 93 5.4 Trends in Complete Cohort Fertility......Page 96 5.5 Conclusions......Page 100 6.1 Changes in Government Abortion Policies and Levels of Abortions......Page 102 6.2 Patterns, Characteristics of and Reasons for Abortions......Page 108 6.3 Abortion, Fertility Decline, and Rising Sex Ratios at Birth......Page 115 6.4 Conclusions......Page 121 7. Child Sex Ratios and Their Regional Variation......Page 123 7.1 Rising Sex Ratios in China and Their Major Determinants......Page 124 7.2 Regional Variation in Child Sex Ratios......Page 127 7.3 Interpreting Regional Clusters and Variation in Child Sex Ratios......Page 133 7.4 Consequences of Rising Sex Ratios......Page 135 7.5 Conclusions......Page 138 8.1 Proportion of Ever-Married and Age at First Marriage......Page 139 8.2 Changes in Attitudes Towards Sexual Relations and Their Impact on Marital Behavior......Page 144 8.3 Changes in Marriage Patterns and Fertility Decline......Page 148 8.4 Chinese Marriage Patterns in International Perspective......Page 151 8.5 Conclusions......Page 154 9. Poverty, Progress, and Rising Life Expectancy......Page 155 9.1 Mortality Decline in the Maoist Era......Page 156 9.2 Economic Growth, Poverty Reduction, and Increasing Inequality Under Economic Reform......Page 157 9.3 Further Mortality Improvement and Urban–Rural Mortality Differentials......Page 160 9.4 Mortality Changes in Poor Areas......Page 163 9.5 Mortality Decline in China: Reasons and Challenges......Page 171 10. Changing Mortality Patterns and Causes of Death......Page 175 10.1 Age Patterns of Mortality......Page 176 10.2 Sex Differentials in Mortality......Page 180 10.3 Changes in Major Causes of Death......Page 183 10.4 Causes of Death, Mortality Patterns, and Their Sex Differentials......Page 187 10.5 Conclusions......Page 190 11. Population Ageing: Challenges, Opportunities, and Institutions......Page 192 11.1 Population Ageing: National and Sub-National Trends......Page 193 11.2 Migration and its Potential Impact on Ageing in Rural China......Page 199 11.3 Economic Consequences of Ageing......Page 202 11.4 Institutions and the Second Demographic Dividend......Page 207 11.5 Conclusions......Page 209 12. Internal Migration: Policy Changes, Recent Trends, and New Challenges......Page 212 12.1 Difficulties in Defining Migration and Counting Migrants......Page 213 12.2 Patterns of Recent Internal Migration......Page 216 12.3 Migration, Household Income, and Return Migration......Page 218 12.4 Recent Changes in Migration Policies......Page 221 12.5 Major Challenges Ahead......Page 224 12.6 Conclusions......Page 229 13. The Impact of Temporary Migration on Migrant Communities......Page 231 13.1 Impacts of Government Control on Rural–Urban Migration......Page 232 13.2 Occupational Concentration of Temporary Migrants......Page 233 13.3 Unemployment Among Temporary Migrants......Page 237 13.4 Migrant Communities in Cities......Page 242 13.5 Conclusions......Page 245 14. The Changing Profile of Labor Migration......Page 248 14.1 Labor Migration in China and Mexico......Page 249 14.2 Changes in Factors Affecting Origin, Destination, and the Migration Process......Page 251 14.3 Potential Changes in the Profile of Chinese Migration......Page 259 14.4 Conclusions......Page 263 15.1 Cultural Integration and Development......Page 266 15.2 Family Planning and Fertility Decline......Page 271 15.3 Recent Changes in Mortality, Age and Sex Composition, and Population Growth......Page 276 15.4 Conclusions......Page 284 16. China’s Demography in Perspective......Page 286 16.1 Historical Population Changes in China and the World......Page 287 16.2 China’s Demographic Transition in the Context of World Demographic Changes......Page 289 16.3 The New Demographic Experience and Demographic Transition Theory......Page 293 16.4 Future Challenges and Policy Responses......Page 297 Notes......Page 301 References......Page 313 B......Page 354 E......Page 355 F......Page 356 I......Page 358 M......Page 359 R......Page 362 S......Page 363 U......Page 364 Z......Page 365 Contents 6 List of Figures 10 List of Tables 12 List of Contributors 14 1. Introduction 16 1.1 Rapid Demographic Transition 17 1.2 Major Demographic Challenges 20 1.3 Demographic Research in China 24 1.4 The Production and Organization of this Book 27 2. Family Planning During the Economic Reform Era 33 2.1 Trajectory of China’s Population Policy 34 2.2 Policy Implementation in the Economic Reform Era 37 2.3 Achievements, Consequences, and Future Policy Prospects 44 2.4 Conclusions 47 3. The Politics of Numbers: Fertility Statistics in Recent Decades 49 3.1 Fertility Data Since the Start of the One-Child Policy 50 3.2 The Role of Birth-Planning Policies 55 3.3 Procedures and Implementation Problems in the 2000 Census 59 3.4 Census Data and Adjustment Approaches 63 3.5 Conclusions 67 4. Below Replacement Fertility in Mainland China 69 4.1 Fertility Decline Before 1990 70 4.2 Fertility Levels in the 1990s 73 4.3 Comparing Fertility Levels from Different Data Sources 78 4.4 Tempo Adjusted TFR versus Conventional TFR 82 4.5 Conclusions 85 5. Fertility Transition in Hong Kong and Taiwan 86 5.1 Fertility Decline in Hong Kong and Taiwan 86 5.2 Tempo Effects on TFRs Since 1976 89 5.3 Recuperation Effects on Period Fertility 93 5.4 Trends in Complete Cohort Fertility 96 5.5 Conclusions 100 6. Induced Abortion and its Demographic Consequences 102 6.1 Changes in Government Abortion Policies and Levels of Abortions 102 6.2 Patterns, Characteristics of and Reasons for Abortions 108 6.3 Abortion, Fertility Decline, and Rising Sex Ratios at Birth 115 6.4 Conclusions 121 7. Child Sex Ratios and Their Regional Variation 123 7.1 Rising Sex Ratios in China and Their Major Determinants 124 7.2 Regional Variation in Child Sex Ratios 127 7.3 Interpreting Regional Clusters and Variation in Child Sex Ratios 133 7.4 Consequences of Rising Sex Ratios 135 7.5 Conclusions 138 8. Recent Changes in Marriage Patterns 139 8.1 Proportion of Ever-Married and Age at First Marriage 139 8.2 Changes in Attitudes Towards Sexual Relations and Their Impact on Marital Behavior 144 8.3 Changes in Marriage Patterns and Fertility Decline 148 8.4 Chinese Marriage Patterns in International Perspective 151 8.5 Conclusions 154 9. Poverty, Progress, and Rising Life Expectancy 155 9.1 Mortality Decline in the Maoist Era 156 9.2 Economic Growth, Poverty Reduction, and Increasing Inequality Under Economic Reform 157 9.3 Further Mortality Improvement and Urban–Rural Mortality Differentials 160 9.4 Mortality Changes in Poor Areas 163 9.5 Mortality Decline in China: Reasons and Challenges 171 10. Changing Mortality Patterns and Causes of Death 175 10.1 Age Patterns of Mortality 176 10.2 Sex Differentials in Mortality 180 10.3 Changes in Major Causes of Death 183 10.4 Causes of Death, Mortality Patterns, and Their Sex Differentials 187 10.5 Conclusions 190 11. Population Ageing: Challenges, Opportunities, and Institutions 192 11.1 Population Ageing: National and Sub-National Trends 193 11.2 Migration and its Potential Impact on Ageing in Rural China 199 11.3 Economic Consequences of Ageing 202 11.4 Institutions and the Second Demographic Dividend 207 11.5 Conclusions 209 12. Internal Migration: Policy Changes, Recent Trends, and New Challenges 212 12.1 Difficulties in Defining Migration and Counting Migrants 213 12.2 Patterns of Recent Internal Migration 216 12.3 Migration, Household Income, and Return Migration 218 12.4 Recent Changes in Migration Policies 221 12.5 Major Challenges Ahead 224 12.6 Conclusions 229 13. The Impact of Temporary Migration on Migrant Communities 231 13.1 Impacts of Government Control on Rural–Urban Migration 232 13.2 Occupational Concentration of Temporary Migrants 233 13.3 Unemployment Among Temporary Migrants 237 13.4 Migrant Communities in Cities 242 13.5 Conclusions 245 14. The Changing Profile of Labor Migration 248 14.1 Labor Migration in China and Mexico 249 14.2 Changes in Factors Affecting Origin, Destination, and the Migration Process 251 14.3 Potential Changes in the Profile of Chinese Migration 259 14.4 Conclusions 263 15. Minorities: Cultural Integration, Family Planning, and Population Changes 266 15.1 Cultural Integration and Development 266 15.2 Family Planning and Fertility Decline 271 15.3 Recent Changes in Mortality, Age and Sex Composition, and Population Growth 276 15.4 Conclusions 284 16. China’s Demography in Perspective 286 16.1 Historical Population Changes in China and the World 287 16.2 China’s Demographic Transition in the Context of World Demographic Changes 289 16.3 The New Demographic Experience and Demographic Transition Theory 293 16.4 Future Challenges and Policy Responses 297 Notes 301 References 313 Index 354 A 354 B 354 C 355 D 355 E 355 F 356 G 358 H 358 I 358 J 359 K 359 L 359 M 359 N 362 O 362 P 362 Q 362 R 362 S 363 T 364 U 364 W 365 X 365 Y 365 Z 365 With the largest population in the world, China has experienced significant demographic, social, and economic changes in recent decades. This book examines these changes and also looks at how China's population has altered the global landscape One of the most exciting places in the world in recent years has been China, where extraordinary social, economic, and demographic changes have taken place.