Toxicology and Human Health : Environmental Exposures and Biomarkers

This contributed volume brings out a comprehensive collection of information on environmental toxicology, its impact on living organisms in general and human health in particular. The main focus of this book is to address human health issues and risk assessment. Toxicological studies help in understanding the impact of harmful substances including both natural and synthetic chemicals on organisms and their environment. Contributions in the title include both laboratory and field based studies with a focus on human health. Moreover, day by day, there is an increase in the range of chemicals from pharmaceutical and other industries, agricultural runoffs, medicine, and many other sources which continuously contribute to the earth's chemical load. Almost all the countries are facing great difficulties in responding to the crucial and immediate need for effective management of such contaminants. The title compiles studies in regards to environmental toxicology and its effect on human health. This book provides critical information and knowledge that can be used by regulatory agencies, decision-makers, policy makers, graduate and post-graduate students, researchers, environmental toxicologists, etc, and others to put programs and policies in place to limit our exposures to these substances thereby preventing or reducing the likelihood that a disease or other negative health outcomes would occur. Foreword Preface Acknowledgments Contents Editors and Contributors About the Editors Contributors Abbreviations Part I: Environmental Exposure to Contaminants and Assessment 1: Environmental Contaminants and Their Impact on Wildlife 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Classification of Environmental Contaminants 1.3 Pesticides 1.4 Industrial Chemicals 1.5 Fossil and Mineral Fuels 1.6 Pharmaceuticals (Human and Veterinary) 1.7 Personal Care Products 1.8 Metals 1.9 Fertilizers 1.10 Impact of Environmental Contaminants on Wildlife 1.11 Pesticides 1.12 Industrial Chemicals 1.13 Fossil and Mineral Fuels 1.14 Pharmaceuticals (Human and Veterinary) 1.15 Personal Care Products 1.16 Metals 1.17 Impact of Fertilizers 1.18 Conclusion References 2: Heavy Metal Pollution in Water from Anthropogenic and Natural Activities and the Remediation Strategies 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Chemical Nature of Heavy Metals 2.3 Sources of Heavy Metal Pollution 2.4 Heavy Metals and Their Dangerous Impacts 2.4.1 Copper 2.4.2 Iron 2.4.3 Lead 2.4.4 Cadmium 2.4.5 Zinc 2.4.6 Nickel 2.4.7 Chromium 2.4.8 Arsenic 2.5 Characteristics of Common Heavy Metals 2.6 Heavy Metals Removal Technologies 2.7 Heavy Metals Removal from Water 2.8 Conventional Methods 2.9 Non-Conventional Methods 2.10 Nanotechnology 2.11 Phytoremediation of Heavy Metals 2.12 Biological Approach by Using Diatoms 2.13 Endophytes Isolation and Characterization 2.14 Uses of Endophytic Microbes in Real Contaminants 2.15 Future Predictions 2.16 Conclusion References 3: Cement Dust Pollution and Environment 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Chapter Aims 3.3 Influence of Cement Dust on the Characteristics and Population of the Environment 3.3.1 Cement Dust Pollution and Atmosphere 3.3.2 Cement Dust Pollution and Water 3.3.3 Cement Dust Pollution and Soil 3.3.4 Cement Dust Pollution and Human Health 3.3.5 Cement Dust Pollution and Plant Health 3.4 Conclusion References 4: Microplastics: An Overview 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Types of Plastics 4.2.1 Megaplastics 4.2.2 Macroplastics 4.2.3 Mesoplastics 4.2.4 Microplastics 4.2.5 Nanoplastics 4.3 Sources 4.4 Biological Interaction 4.5 Conclusion References 5: Aquaculture Fish Responses Towards Temperature Stress: A Critical Review 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Materials and Methods 5.3 Fish Responses to Temperature Stress 5.4 Neuroendocrine Response to Temperature Stress 5.5 Antioxidant Responses to Temperature Stress 5.6 Immunity Status Under Temperature Stress 5.7 Haematological Responses to Temperature Stress 5.8 Growth and Metabolic Responses to Temperature Stress 5.9 Biochemical Response to Temperature Stress 5.10 Response of Ionic Balance to Temperature Stress 5.11 Reproductive Responses to Temperature Stress 5.12 Effects of Temperature on Sex Determination and Differentiation 5.13 Thermal Imprinting in Fish 5.14 Mitigation Measures to Temperature Stress 5.15 Levans 5.16 Proteins and Amino Acids 5.17 Tryptophan 5.18 Phenylalanine and Tyrosine 5.19 Methionine 5.20 Arginine 5.21 Branched-Chain Amino Acids 5.22 Glutamine 5.23 Tyrosine, Glycine, and Phosphatidylserine 5.24 Essential Fatty Acids and Phospholipids 5.25 Vitamins 5.26 Vitamin C 5.27 Vitamin E 5.28 Vitamin A 5.29 B Group Vitamins: Vitamins B2 and B3 5.30 Vitamins B9 and B12 5.31 Vitamins B5 and B7 5.32 Minerals 5.33 Nucleotides 5.34 Methyl Donors 5.35 Conclusion and Future Perspective References Part II: Biomarkers of Human Health 6: Thrombophilia and Its Markers: A Comprehensive Insight 6.1 Thrombosis 6.2 Coagulation Cascade 6.3 Epidemiology 6.4 Specific Genetic Types of Inherited Thrombophilia 6.4.1 Factor V Leiden 6.4.2 Prothrombin Genetic Mutation 6.4.3 Methylenetetrahydrofolate Reductase (MTHFR) Mutation 6.4.4 Protein C Deficiency 6.4.5 Protein S Deficiency 6.4.6 Antithrombin Deficiency 6.5 Thrombophilia in Pregnancy 6.6 Portal Vein Thrombosis 6.7 Cerebral Venous Thrombosis (CVT) 6.8 Coronary Heart Disease 6.9 Conclusion References 7: Role of Salivary Markers for Diagnosis of Systemic Diseases 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Salivary Diagnostics for Systemic Diseases 7.2.1 Cardiovascular Diseases 7.2.2 Cardiac Enzymes 7.2.2.1 Pro-inflammatory Salivary Markers 7.2.2.2 Soluble Cell Adhesion Markers 7.2.3 Diabetes 7.2.4 Renal Diseases 7.2.5 Malignancy 7.2.6 Brain Diseases 7.2.7 Infectious Diseases 7.2.8 Bacterial Diseases 7.2.9 Viral Diseases 7.3 Salivary Diagnosis of Corona Virus Disease-19 (COVID-19) 7.3.1 Autoimmune Disorders 7.3.2 Psychological Research 7.3.3 Hereditary Diseases 7.3.4 Respiratory Disease 7.3.5 Forensic Evidence 7.4 Saliva in Hormone Level Monitoring 7.4.1 Aldosterone 7.4.2 Progesterone 7.4.3 Insulin 7.5 Conclusion References 8: Role of Biomarkers in Cancer Prevention and Therapy 8.1 Introduction 8.2 History of Cancer Biomarkers Discovery 8.3 Limitations of Cancer Therapies and Need for Cancer Biomarker Discovery 8.4 Cancer Biomarkers and Their Clinical Applications 8.5 Some Commonly Used Cancer Biomarkers in Clinical Practices 8.6 Sources of Cancer Biomarker Detection 8.6.1 Circulating Tumor Nucleic Acids 8.6.2 Circulating Tumor Cells 8.6.3 Exosomes 8.7 Stages of Cancer Biomarker Development 8.8 Biomarkers Used in Some Common Cancers 8.9 Targeted Therapies Based on Cancer Biomarkers 8.10 Techniques Used for Biomarker Discovery 8.11 Conclusion References 9: Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS): Clinical Features, Risk Factors, Biomarkers, Treatment, and Therapeutic Strategies 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Multifaceted Disease 9.3 Diagnosis 9.4 Hyperandrogenism 9.5 Menstrual Abnormalities 9.6 Ultrasonography Documentation of Polycystic Ovaries 9.7 Common Manifestations in PCOS 9.7.1 Obesity 9.7.2 Insulin Resistance 9.7.3 Diabetes Mellitus 9.7.4 Cardiovascular Disease 9.7.5 Infertility 9.7.6 Cancers 9.8 Biomarkers of PCOS 9.8.1 Inflammatory Markers 9.8.2 Oxidative Stress Markers 9.8.3 Adipose Markers 9.8.4 miRNA as Biomarkers in PCOS 9.9 Treatment Strategies 9.10 Conclusion References 10: Impact of Environmental Stress on Gene Modification, Cancer, and Chemoresistance 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Environmental Pollutant Exposure and Genome Instability 10.3 A Brief Overview of the Mode of Action of Some Common Chemotherapeutic Drugs 10.4 Target Sites for Developing Chemoresistance and its Molecular Mechanism 10.5 Pathological Remodeling of Extracellular Matrix 10.6 Increase in the Number of Cancer Stem Cell Populations 10.7 Overexpression of Genes Coding for CYP450 Isozymes 10.8 The Ability of Cancer Cells to Repair DNA Damage 10.9 Induction of Oncogenic Signaling 10.10 Common Organic Pollutants Interfering with Chemotherapeutic Drugs 10.11 Particulate Matter 10.12 Aluminum Chloride 10.13 Benzo [a] Pyrene 10.14 Persistent Organic Pollutants 10.15 Conclusion References Part III: Human Health Risk Assessment 11: Human Health Risk Assessment (HHRA) for Environmental Exposure: A Brief Account 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Basic Steps in HHRA 11.3 Utilization of HHRA 11.4 HHRA for Exposure to Polluted Air 11.5 HHRA for Exposure to Polluted Water 11.6 HHRA for Exposure to Polluted Soil 11.7 Conclusion References 12: Human Health Risk Assessment Due to the Consumption of Heavy Metals 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Materials and Methods 12.2.1 Health Risk Assessment for Fish Consumption 12.2.1.1 Calculation of EDI and THQ 12.2.1.2 HI 12.2.1.3 TR 12.3 Results and Discussion 12.3.1 EDI, THQ, and HI 12.3.2 Target Cancer Risk (TR) 12.4 Conclusion References