Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons : Environmental Fate, Toxicity, and Remediation

The term “total petroleum hydrocarbons” (TPHs) is used for any mixture of several hundred hydrocarbons found in crude oil, and they represent the sum of volatile petroleum hydrocarbons and extractable petroleum hydrocarbons. The petrol-range organics include hydrocarbons from C6 to C10, while diesel-range organics are C10-C28 hydrocarbons. Environmental pollution by petroleum hydrocarbons is one of the major global concerns, particularly in oil-yielding countries. In fact, there are more than five million potentially contaminated areas worldwide that represent, in general, a lost economic opportunity and a threat to the health and well-being of humans and the environment. Petroleum-contaminated sites constitute almost one-third of the total sites polluted with chemicals around the globe. The land contamination caused by industrialization was recognized as early as the 1960s, but less than a tenth of potentially contaminated lands have been remediated due to the nature of the contamination, cost, technical impracticability, and insufficient land legislation and enforcement. This book is the first single source that provides comprehensive information on the different aspects of TPHs, such as sources and range of products, methods of analysis, fate and bioavailability, ecological implications including impact on human health, potential approaches for bioremediation such as risk-based remediation, and regulatory assessment procedures for TPH-contaminated sites. As such, it is a valuable resource for researchers, graduate students, technicians in the oil industry and remediation practitioners, as well as policy makers. Preface 5 Acknowledgments 7 Abbreviations 8 Contents 13 About the Authors 17 Chapter 1: An Overview of Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons 20 1.1 Introduction 20 1.2 Definitions 22 1.2.1 Hydrocarbon 22 1.2.2 Crude Oil 22 1.2.3 Petroleum 22 1.2.4 PHs 23 1.2.5 TPHs 24 1.3 Sources of TPHs 25 1.4 Carbon Ranges in TPHs 25 1.5 Components of TPHs 26 1.5.1 Gasolines 26 1.5.2 Kerosene 27 1.5.3 Diesel Fuels 27 1.5.4 Jet Fuels 31 1.5.5 Stoddard Solvent 32 1.5.6 Mineral-Based Motor Oils 33 1.5.7 Fuel Oils No. 5 and 6 33 1.5.8 BTEX 34 1.5.9 PAHs 35 1.6 Chemicals Included in TPHs 36 1.7 Summary 42 References 42 Chapter 2: Methodologies for Analysis and Identification of Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons 47 2.1 Introduction 47 2.2 Methods for PHs Analysis 48 2.2.1 Collection and Preservation of Environmental Samples 49 2.2.2 Sample Extraction 49 2.2.2.1 Aqueous Samples 50 2.2.2.2 Solid Samples 52 2.2.2.3 Free-Phase Petroleum Hydrocarbon Samples 53 2.2.3 Concentration of the Extract 53 2.2.4 Clean-Up of the Extract 54 2.2.5 Detection and Quantification of PHs 55 2.2.5.1 GC 55 2.2.5.2 HPLC 59 2.2.5.3 IR 60 2.2.5.4 Gravimetric Methods 61 2.2.5.5 Fluorescence Spectroscopy 62 2.2.5.6 Immunoassays 62 2.3 Resolving the Unresolved Complex Mixture in TPHs-Impacted Media 63 2.4 TPHs Levels in Environmental Samples 64 2.5 Summary 68 References 68 Chapter 3: Fate of Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons in the Environment 74 3.1 Introduction 74 3.2 Fate of TPHs in Air 77 3.3 Fate of TPHs in Land-Spillage 79 3.4 Fate of TPHs in Aquatic Systems 82 3.4.1 Marine Environment 82 3.4.2 Freshwater System 87 3.4.3 Sediments 89 3.4.4 Ice 90 3.5 Summary 90 References 91 Chapter 4: Bioavailability of Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons 95 4.1 Introduction 95 4.2 Definitions of Bioavailability 96 4.3 Importance of Bioavailability in Bioremediation 98 4.4 Surfactants to Enhance TPHs Bioavailability 99 4.5 Assessing Bioavailability of TPHs 99 4.5.1 Chemical Assays 100 4.5.2 Biological Assays 103 4.6 Summary 107 References 107 Chapter 5: Ecological Impacts of Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons 111 5.1 Introduction 112 5.2 Terrestrial Organisms 114 5.2.1 Microorganisms and Their Activities 115 5.2.2 Plants 118 5.2.3 Invertebrates 122 5.2.4 Vertebrates 126 5.3 Aquatic Organisms 132 5.3.1 Microorganisms 132 5.3.2 Plants 136 5.3.3 Invertebrates 138 5.3.4 Vertebrates 140 5.4 Summary 146 References 147 Chapter 6: Impact of Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons on Human Health 155 6.1 Introduction 155 6.2 TPHs Sources for Human Exposure 158 6.3 Routes of TPHs Entry 160 6.4 Effects of TPHs on Human Health 163 6.4.1 Effects on Mental Health 167 6.4.2 Effects on the Respiratory System 168 6.4.3 Effects on the Hematopoietic, Renal, and Digestive Systems 169 6.4.4 Carcinogenicity and Genotoxic Effects 170 6.4.5 Teratogenic Effects 172 6.4.6 Immunotoxicity and Endocrine Toxicity 173 6.5 Health Risk Assessments 174 6.6 Summary 177 References 178 Chapter 7: Approaches for Remediation of Sites Contaminated with Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons 182 7.1 Introduction 182 7.2 Risk-Based Clean-Up of TPHs-Contaminated Sites: An Emerging Approach 184 7.3 TPHs Risk Reduction 184 7.3.1 Established Remediation Technologies 185 7.3.1.1 Dig and Dump 187 7.3.1.2 Soil Washing 192 7.3.1.3 Soil Vapor Extraction 192 7.3.1.4 Thermal Desorption 193 7.3.1.5 Incineration 194 7.3.1.6 Natural Attenuation 194 7.3.1.7 Landfarming 195 7.3.1.8 Bioaugmentation 196 7.3.1.9 Biostimulation 198 7.3.1.10 Biopiling and Bioventing 201 7.3.1.11 Composting 202 7.3.1.12 Bioreactors 202 7.3.1.13 Phytoremediation 203 7.3.2 Emerging Remediation Technologies 204 7.3.2.1 Bioelectrochemical System 206 7.3.2.2 Nanoremediation 207 7.3.2.3 Electrokinetic Remediation 207 7.3.2.4 Genetic Engineering 209 7.3.2.5 Ultrasonic Technology 210 7.4 Summary 211 References 211 Chapter 8: Regulatory Guidelines for Total Petroleum Hydrocarbon Contamination 221 8.1 Introduction 221 8.2 International Guidelines for TPHs Contamination 222 8.2.1 Canada 222 8.2.2 New Zealand 226 8.2.3 Netherlands 228 8.2.4 United Kingdom 229 8.2.5 USA 231 8.2.6 Australia 232 8.2.7 Asia 235 8.3 Suggestions for Improved Regulatory Regimes 236 8.4 Summary 237 References 237 Chapter 9: Case Studies on Remediation of Sites Contaminated with Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons 239 9.1 Introduction 239 9.2 Bioremediation of Oil Spill Site in Gujarat Oil Field in Western India 242 9.3 Land Treatment Using a Bulldozer Equipped with a Cultivator 245 9.4 Passive Aeration in Biopiles Using Trackhoe Equipped with a Mixing Head Unit 246 9.5 Land Treatment at the Brown Wood Preserving Superfund Site in Live Oak, Florida, USA 247 9.6 Bioventing Treatment at Eielson Air Force Base, Alaska, USA 248 9.7 Slurry-Phase Bioremediation at the French Limited Superfund Site, Crosby, Texas, USA 250 9.8 Remediation of a JP-4 Fuel Spill at Hill AFB, Utah, USA 252 9.9 Bioventing Treatment of Underground Storage Tanks at Lowry AFB, Denver, Colorado, USA 254 9.10 Land Treatment at the Scott Lumber Company Superfund Site, Alton, Missouri, USA 254 9.11 Density-Driven Groundwater Sparging at Amcor Precast, Ogden, Utah, USA 255 9.12 Pump and Treat of Contaminated Groundwater at Langley AFB, Virginia, USA 258 9.13 Dynamic Underground Stripping at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Gasoline Spill Site, California, USA 259 9.14 Soil Vapor Extraction at North Fire Training Area Luke AFB, Arizona, USA 260 9.15 Thermal Desorption at the McKin Company Superfund Site, Gray, Maine, USA 261 9.16 In Situ Chemical Oxidation of Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether 261 9.17 Surfactant-Enhanced Ex Situ Oxidation of Diesel Nonaqueous Phase Liquid in Georgia, USA 262 9.18 Remediation of Former Filling Station Site in Glasgow, UK 263 9.19 Remediation of a Mega-site in China 263 9.20 Bioremediation of Petroleum Hydrocarbons in Bogota, Colombia 264 9.21 In Situ Treatment of Toluene in Groundwater in Helsingborg, Sweden 265 9.22 In Situ Remediation of PHs at a Rail Depot, Bristol, UK 266 9.23 Ex Situ Chemical Oxidation of Soils at a Fuel Storage Depot, Sweden 266 9.24 Horizontal Well Injection Application at an Active Gas Station Site in Colorado, USA 267 9.25 Summary 267 References 268 Index 271 Front Matter ....Pages i-xxi An Overview of Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons (Saranya Kuppusamy, Naga Raju Maddela, Mallavarapu Megharaj, Kadiyala Venkateswarlu)....Pages 1-27 Methodologies for Analysis and Identification of Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons (Saranya Kuppusamy, Naga Raju Maddela, Mallavarapu Megharaj, Kadiyala Venkateswarlu)....Pages 29-55 Fate of Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons in the Environment (Saranya Kuppusamy, Naga Raju Maddela, Mallavarapu Megharaj, Kadiyala Venkateswarlu)....Pages 57-77 Bioavailability of Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons (Saranya Kuppusamy, Naga Raju Maddela, Mallavarapu Megharaj, Kadiyala Venkateswarlu)....Pages 79-94 Ecological Impacts of Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons (Saranya Kuppusamy, Naga Raju Maddela, Mallavarapu Megharaj, Kadiyala Venkateswarlu)....Pages 95-138 Impact of Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons on Human Health (Saranya Kuppusamy, Naga Raju Maddela, Mallavarapu Megharaj, Kadiyala Venkateswarlu)....Pages 139-165 Approaches for Remediation of Sites Contaminated with Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons (Saranya Kuppusamy, Naga Raju Maddela, Mallavarapu Megharaj, Kadiyala Venkateswarlu)....Pages 167-205 Regulatory Guidelines for Total Petroleum Hydrocarbon Contamination (Saranya Kuppusamy, Naga Raju Maddela, Mallavarapu Megharaj, Kadiyala Venkateswarlu)....Pages 207-224 Case Studies on Remediation of Sites Contaminated with Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons (Saranya Kuppusamy, Naga Raju Maddela, Mallavarapu Megharaj, Kadiyala Venkateswarlu)....Pages 225-256 Back Matter ....Pages 257-264