امنیت مقبره در مصر باستان از دوره پیش‌دینامیک تا عصر هرم

Cover Title Page Copyright Page Contents List of Figures Acknowledgements Abbreviations Conventions List of Figures and Maps 1. Introduction 1.1 The purpose of the Egyptian tomb and the need for it to be secure 1.2 Aims and objectives 1.3 Previous scholarship 1.4 Methodology 1.5 Dating 1.6 Database analysis 1.7 Structure of the book 1.8 Contributions made by this research 2. Substructure and access route typology 2.1 Tomb types 2.2 Superstructures 3. The early precursors of tomb security 3.1 The Late Palaeolithic: an early beginning 3.2 The Neolithic and Predynastic Periods 3.3 Conclusion 4. The defence of the burial chamber 4.1 Royal tombs 4.1.1 Dynasty 0 and the First Dynasty 4.1.2 The Second Dynasty 4.1.3 The Third Dynasty 4.1.4 The early Fourth Dynasty 4.1.5 Conclusion 4.2 Private tombs 4.2.1 Burial chambers in Type IB, IC and ID pit tombs 4.2.1.1 The burial chamber in Type IB and IC pit tombs 4.2.1.2 The burial chamber in Type ID pit tombs 4.2.2 Burial chambers in subterranean Type II tombs 4.2.2.1 The burial chambers in the Abu Roash Type II tombs 4.2.2.2 The burial chambers in Type IIA tombs with stairway access 4.2.2.3 The burial chamber in Type IIB ‘deep’ staircase tombs 4.2.2.4 The burial chamber in Type IIA-C stair-shaft tombs 4.2.2.5 The burial chambers in Type IIC shaft tombs 4.2.3 Burial chambers in Type III tombs with sloping corridors 4.2.4 Conclusion 5. The security of the access route and its blockings 5.1 Stairs, shafts and corridors 5.1.1 Royal tombs 5.1.2 Private tombs 5.1.2.1 The access routes of Type ID tombs - the staircase or slope 5.1.2.2 The access routes of Type IIA tombs - the staircase or slope 5.1.2.3 The access routes of Type IIB tombs - the ‘deep’ staircase 5.1.2.4 The access routes of Type IIA-C tombs - the stair-shaft 5.1.2.5 The access routes of Type IIC tombs - the shaft 5.1.2.6 The access routes of Type III tombs - sloping corridors 5.1.3 Conclusion 5.2 Backfill to blockwork - the closure of the access route 5.2.3 Conclusion 5.2.2 Manufactured or built blockings 5.2.2.1 Mud-brick 5.2.2.2 Stone walls and blocking 5.2.2.3 Wooden doors 5.2.1 Backfill 5.2.1.1 Sand 5.2.1.2 Rubble 5.2.1.3 Liquid mud 5.3 Portcullises and plug-stones 5.3.1 The portcullis 5.3.1.1 Royal tombs 5.3.1.2 Private tombs 5.3.2 Plug-stones 5.3.2.1 Royal tombs 5.3.2.2 Private tombs 5.3.3 Conclusion 6. Mounds, mastabas and pyramids – the security of the superstructure 6.1 Royal tombs 6.1.1 Dynasty ‘0’ to the mid First Dynasty 6.1.2 The second half of the First Dynasty 6.1.3 The Second Dynasty 6.1.4 The Third Dynasty 6.1.5 The early Fourth Dynasty 6.2 Private tombs 6.2.1 Superstructures over Type IB and IC pit substructures 6.2.2 Superstructures over pit tombs with Type ID substructures. 6.2.3 Superstructures over Type II tombs with subterranean substructures 6.2.3.1 The superstructures of the Abu Roash Type II tombs 6.2.3.2 The superstructures of Type IIA tombs with staircase access 6.2.3.3 The superstructures of Type IIB ‘deep’ staircase tombs 6.2.3.4 The superstructures of Type IIA-C stair-shaft tombs 6.2.3.5 The superstructures of Type IIC shaft tombs 6.2.4 Superstructures over Type III tombs with sloping corridors 6.3 Conclusion 7. Conclusion 7.1 Findings and conclusions of this research 7.2 Significance and implications of the research 7.3 Securing the eternal afterlife in the Egyptian tomb Bibliography Charts A-Q Tomb Catalogue Tomb catalogue table of contents Index Figure 1 Sketch section of the typical arrangement of stone slabs over the graves at Site 117 at Jebel Sahaba Figure 2 A shallow pit burial at Merimde with the body in a contracted position. Figure 3 Assorted Badarian graves. Figure 4 Graves with ‘mounding’ in 1918 at the Canadian military cemetery at Brookwood. Figure 5 Burials at el-Omari Cemetery F, showing heaps of stones covering the graves. Figure 6 Burial with grave goods at Maadi, grave No. MA45. Figure 7 Rectangular shaped graves from Naqada. Figure 8 Wood and stick ‘roofing’ (which Reisner describes as a ‘tray’) in tomb 612 at Mesaeed, which by its pottery dates to Naqada I-II (For the pottery see MFA Boston Accession numbers: 13-3-1140 and 13-3-1167) Figure 9 A typical section through a late Naqada II grave lined with mud-brick. It is shown here with a wood and brick roof, covered by a mound. Figure 11 Tomb 26 at Cemetery HK6 at Hierakonpolis, the ledge for supporting the roofing beams can be clearly seen, along with the surrounding postholes. Figure 10 Artist’s impression of a lightweight superstructure over tomb 1 at Locality HK6 at Hierakonpolis – this particular example dates to Naqada IIIA. Figure 12 Tomb U-j at Umm el-Qaab showing its thick mud-brick liners and their position below the ancient desert levels. Figure 13 Tomb No. 85 at El-Kab, showing the large sandstone slabs laid over the grave, the pottery dates the burial to Naqada IIIA2. Figure 14 Tomb 6 in Cemetery 137 at Seyala, showing a sandstone slab in position over the grave. Figure 15 Grave 3 at Tunqala West with large 2 m × 0.8 m sandstone slab over pit. Figure 17 Cross section of tomb no. 8 at Kom el-Ahmar (Naqada III) showing large stone slabs blocking access to the burial niche. Figure 16 Tomb L23 at Qustul, showing the stone blocking to the burial chamber. Figure 19 Plan of tomb 2 at Locality 6 Hierakonpolis. Figure 18 Tomb 2 at Locality 6 Hierakonpolis, showing the niche in the base and side and one of its associated ‘portcullis’ stones propped up at one end. Figure 20 Tomb B0/1/2 the tomb of King Iry-Hor at Umm el-Qaab Figure 21 Tomb B7/9 the grave of King Ka. Figure 22 Tomb B17/18, the grave of King Narmer. (Kaiser and Dreyer 1982, Taf. 56c) Courtesy of the DAI Cairo. Figure 23 Tomb B10/15/19 the grave of King Hor-Aha. Figure 24 The roof arrangement in tomb B10/15/19, the grave of King Hor-Aha. Figure 26 The re-excavated substructure of Djer in modern times, with the mud-brick ‘tongue’ walls clearly visible. Figure 25 The tomb of Djer at Umm el-Qaab. Figure 27 The tomb of Djet at Umm-el Qaab. Figure 28 The recently re-excavated battered mud-brick retaining wall surrounding the hidden tumulus in the tomb of Djet. Figure 29 Dreyer’s hypothetical reconstruction of the concealed mound in the tomb of King Djet at Umm el-Qaab. Above it is Dreyer’s reconstruction of a mud-brick clad sand tumulus. Figure 30 The tomb of Queen Merneith at Umm el-Qaab. Figure 31 The Type ID tomb of Den at Umm-el-Qaab with its descending stairway and surrounding subsidiary graves. Figure 32 Plan view of the core of the tomb of King Den, showing the mud-brick liner, burial chamber entrance and portcullis emplacement; together with the suggested arrangement of the internal wooden liner, wooden shrine and its supporting beams and fram Figure 33 . The restored burial chamber of the tomb of King Den, showing the entrance and the beams that supported the shrine and roof. Figure 34 The reconstructed beams and roof that supported the putative tumulus in the tomb of King Den. Figure 35 The Type ID tomb of Adjib at Umm el-Qaab. Figure 36 Plan of the tomb of Semerkhet at Umm el-Qaab. Figure 38 The tomb of Qa’a at Umm el-Qaab. Figure 37 The re-excavated tomb of Semerkhet from the south. Figure 39 Plan of the tomb of Qa’a, showing the building phases. Figure 40 The layout of the roofing beams and hidden tumulus in the tomb of Qa’a Figure 41 Section through the tomb of Qa’a showing the arrangement of the main pit, roof and possible inner hidden tumulus. The shallower magazines and subsidiary graves are to the sides. Figure 42 The subterranean tomb of Hotepsekhemwy/Raneb at Saqqara. Figure 43 Section looking west of the tomb of Hotepsekhemwy/Raneb with a reconstruction of the superstructure and the tomb’s building phases. Figure 44 The tomb of Ninetjer at Saqqara. Figure 45 The main corridor in the tomb of Ninetjer. Figure 46 The Type IC tomb of Peribsen at Umm el-Qaab. The partly blocked entrance can be seen in the bottom right corner, Figure 47 Plan of the tomb of Peribsen, showing chambers, doorways and blockings. The entrance slope is in the top left corner. Figure 48 The mud-brick substructure of the tomb of Khasekhemwy at Umm el-Qaab. Figure 49 The tomb of Khasekhemwy set 7 m beneath the desert at Umm el-Qaab. Figure 50 The concealed limestone burial chamber in the tomb of Khasekhemwy at Umm el-Qaab. Figure 51 The tomb of Khasekhemwy at Umm el-Qaab, showing a) the remains of the roof, and b) the reconstruction of the timber roofing. Figure 52 Cross section of the Step Pyramid facing west, showing the substructure and stages of the superstructure’s development. Figure 53 Cross section of the Step Pyramid looking south, showing passages running from shafts I-XI on the east and the initial mastaba and pyramid stages Figure 54 Plan of the Step Pyramid and its complex substructure of passages and robbers’ tunnels Figure 55 Sections through the shaft of the Step Pyramid showing details of the blocking in the descending passage and the granite vault. Figure 56 Galleries I–XI under the Step Pyramid and the stages of its superstructure’s development in plan over the underlying substructure. Figure 57 Plan and cross-section of the South Tomb at the Step Pyramid. Figure 58 Cross-section of the shaft in the South Tomb showing the vault, manoeuvring chamber and limestone monoliths for protecting the chamber. Figure 60 The pyramid complex of Sekhemkhet general plan and section. Figure 59 The enormous ‘man-sized’ stones used for the ‘rubble’ filling in the shaft of the South Tomb. Figure 62 Cross section of the substructure of the Pyramid of Sekhemkhet, the entrance to the magazines lies under the shaft. Figure 61 Plan of the substructure and magazines of the Pyramid of Sekhemkhet. Figure 63 The alabaster sarcophagus found in the burial chamber of the Pyramid of Sekhemkhet. Figure 64 Lauer’s cross section of the ‘South Tomb’ of the Pyramid of Sekhemkhet. Figure 65 Plan and elevation of the Layer Pyramid according to Reisner and Fisher. Figure 66 Section of the Layer Pyramid according to Barsanti. Figure 67 The layout of the Layer Pyramid as proposed by Dodson. Figure 68 The remains of the Brick Pyramid viewed from the north-west at Abu Roash, as seen by Lepsius in 1842. (Lepsius 1897, Abb. 12) Figure 69 The limestone knoll at Abu Roash upon which the Brick Pyramid was built, photographed in the 1980s. The pyramids of Giza can be seen on the horizon. Figure 70 Left: The interior of the rock-cut descending polar corridor looking towards the burial chamber and Right: the interior of the offset burial chamber of the Brick Pyramid looking up the corridor. Figure 71 Plan and section of the descending corridor and burial chamber of the Brick Pyramid. Figure 72 Reconstructed section of the Brick Pyramid from the west showing the rocky knoll, core and conjectural brick superstructure of the pyramid. Figure 73 Section view of the Pyramid of Meidum looking west. Figure 74 The raised stone lined and corbelled burial chamber of the Pyramid of Meidum. The wooden door blocking can be seen in the first part of the descending passage. Figure 75 The Bent Pyramid in sections looking south and west. Showing both upper (western) and lower (northern) substructure systems. Figure 76 Lower section of substructure of the Bent Pyramid looking west. The putative staircase of small blocks leading to the connecting corridor is visible in chambers ‘A’ and ‘B’. Figure 77 Upper section of the substructure of the Bent Pyramid looking north. Figure 78 Section of the Red or Northern Pyramid of Sneferu looking west. Figure 79 Enlarged section of the substructure of the Red Pyramid looking west, showing the burial chamber and antechambers. Figure 80 The first corbelled limestone antechamber (‘A’) in the Red Pyramid showing the corridor leading to the virtually identical chamber (‘B’) Figure 81 Grave No. 6 at Tell el-Farkha with its 0.5 m thick mud-brick liner. It was closed with a 0.5 cm thick brick cover that matched its perimeter exactly. Figure 82 Grave no 63 at Tell el-Farkha with its 0.75–1 m thick walls, which were the same thickness in the substructure and the superstructure. Figure 83 Grave 100 at Tell el-Farkha, with its massive mud-brick walls and intrusive and subsidiary burials. Figure 84 The massive mud-brick walls of Tomb 1 at Tell Ibrahim Awad with internal magazines built within them. Figure 85 The substructure of the First Dynasty Type IC Mastaba No. 1 at Nazlet Batran. Figure 86 The Type IC Mastaba XVII at Abu Ghurab. The bucranium is encircled by a dotted line. Figure 87 Plan and elevation of the Type IC tomb S 3357 at Saqqara. Figure 88 Robbers’ hole in the burial chamber of the First Dynasty Type IC tomb S 3357 at Saqqara. Figure 89 Plan and section of the Type IC tomb S3471 at Saqqara Figure 90 Plan of tomb S 2185 at Saqqara. Figure 91 The stone lined walls and roof of the subterranean compartments of tomb S 2185 at Saqqara. Figure 92 Emery’s reconstruction drawing of the Type IC tomb S 3504 at Saqqara. Figure 93 Tomb S 3504, showing detail of its burial chamber’s double roof construction and its filling of rubble. Figure 94 Tomb S 3503 at Saqqara, with its simple rock cut pit substructure at the centre. Figure 95 Tomb 68.H.4 at Helwan Figure 97 The burial chamber of Mastaba 1060 at Tarkhan with remains of stone slabs from its roof. Figure 98 The double roofed Type IIC tomb II at Awlad el-Sheikh, with its two layers of mud-brick liners. (Ranke 1926, Abb. 3-4) Courtesy of Walter de Gruyter GmbH. Figure 99 Section through the brick lined pit tomb N 1532 from Cemetery 1500 at Naga el-Deir with its thick mud-brick roof. Figure 100 Section through the brick lined tomb N 1506 in Cemetery 1500 at Naga el-Deir with remains of its double roof. Figure 101 The Type IC tomb 1207 at Armant. Its projecting ‘tongue’ walls can be clearly seen. Figure 102 The Type IC tomb 1208 at Armant. Figure 103 The Type IC Grave 2897 at Minshat Abu Omar. Figure 104 The Type IC Grave 50 at Tell el-Farkha with one and a half brick thick liner. Figure 105 The double roofed Type IC tomb MO25 from Cemetery M at Abu Roash. Figure 106 The Type IC tomb S 3507 at Saqqara, with its deeper rock-cut pit and two levels. Figure 107 Emery’s drawing of tomb S 3507 at Saqqara, showing its internal arrangements with the hidden mound securing the opening now clearly visible. Figure 108 Tomb S 3111, possibly the last monumental Type IC pit tomb at Saqqara. Figure 109 Stone roofing slabs in situ at tomb 423.H.9 at Helwan, with possibly a robbers’ tunnel on the right? Figure 111 The stone lining in Helwan tomb 1390.H.2. Figure 110 Enlarged plan of Helwan tomb 1390.H.2 from Saad’s 1:400 scale map. Figure 112 The palace façade superstructure and pit of the Type IB tomb 2050 at Tarkhan. Figure 113 The palace façade superstructure and pit substructure of Mastaba 2038 at Tarkhan Figure 114 Plan and section of the stone-lined tomb III at Awlad el-Sheikh. Figure 115 The stone lined and roofed tomb 2 at El-Qara. Figure 116 The Type ID mud-brick lined tomb 1056 at Tura el-Asmant with its two portcullises. Figure 117 The Type ID stone lined tomb 130 at Tura el-Asmant. Figure 118 The Type ID stone lined tomb 249 at Tura el-Asmant. Figure 119 The Type ID Mastabas IV and V and at Abu Ghurab. Figure 120 The Type ID Mastaba V at Abu Ghurab. Figure 121 The Type ID tomb S 3506 at Saqqara, plan view. Figure 122 The Type ID tomb S 3506 at Saqqara, axonometric view. Figure 123 Plan of tomb S 3035 (Hemaka) at Saqqara – the notches for the roof beams are visible in the off-centre burial pit. Figure 124 Sections through the tomb of Hemaka S 3035 showing the descending staircase, subterranean magazines and deep shaft rising through the superstructure. Figure 125 Tomb S 3036 (Ankhka) at Saqqara showing the off centre burial chamber. Figure 126 Sections through tomb S 3036 (Ankhka) at Saqqara showing the shaft within the superstructure and the stairway. Figure 127 The construction phases of the Type ID tomb S 3038 (Nebitka) at Saqqara. Figure 128 The final plan of tomb S 3038 (Nebitka) in phase ‘C’. Figure 129 Section drawings of the final layout of tomb S 3038 (Nebitka) in phase ‘C’. Figure 130 Tomb X at Saqqara showing the deep rock-cut pit and solid mud-brick mastaba. Figure 131 The Type ID tomb S 3338 at Saqqara, notably for the first time its descending access slope was entirely concealed under the superstructure. Figure 132 Plans and elevations of the Type ID tomb S 3500 at Saqqara. Figure 133 The plan of tomb S 3505 (Merka) at Saqqara. Figure 134 The subterranean chambers of S 3505 (Merka) Figure 135 Section through tomb S 3505 (Merka) showing the staircase, portcullis and burial chamber roofed by strong beams and planks up to 30 cm thick. Figure 136 The unlined gravel cut pit and mud-brick superstructure of the Type ID Helwan tomb 1.H.4. Figure 137 The unlined pit of the Type ID Helwan tomb 150.H.5 and its superstructure. Figure 138 The Type ID Helwan tomb 1502.H.2 Figure 139 Tomb 1371.H.2 at Helwan, with its stone slab floor. Figure 141 The deep substructure of the Type ID tomb 407.H.4 at Helwan. Figure 140 The Type ID tomb 426.H.4 at Helwan, with its second internal brick liner that supported a deep recessed roof and backfill. Figure 142 Tomb 355.H.4 at Helwan which had a double roof, the lower one supported on internal ledges. Figure 143 The Type ID tomb 1473.H.2 at Helwan showing the raised magazine level on the south and the tomb’s palace façade superstructure. Figure 144 Helwan tomb 785.H.5 with its second storey of magazines. Figure 145 Tomb 649.H.5 at Helwan with its high level staircase leading to the top of the burial chamber and magazines. Figure 146 The Type ID stone lined tomb 385.H.4 at Helwan with its 0.4 m thick stone slab liner. Figure 147 The stone lined burial chamber of tomb 385.H.4 with its enormous limestone orthostats. The robbers’ passage can be seen on the left side of the pit. Figure 148 The stone lined tomb 40.H.3 (Köhler’s Op. 1/1) Figure 149 Plan and section of the stone lined Type ID Helwan tomb 1.H.3. Figure 150 The stone clad substructure of Helwan 1.H.3, the multiple portcullises can be seen in position on the staircase. Figure 151 The stone slab rood of Helwan tomb 60.H.1 after excavation. Figure 152 The enormous stone lined Helwan tomb 654.H.4.The post holes that may have been part of a shrine are clearly visible. Figure 153 Plan of the Type ID tomb N 1581 from Naga el-Deir, with the remains of its superstructure. Figure 154 Section of tomb N 1581 from Naga el-Deir showing the deep limestone pit, into which the burial chamber was dug, and the overlying thick mud and wood roof. Figure 155 The shallow Type ID mud-brick lined stairway tomb M1 from Mahasna. Figure 156 The mud-brick lined tomb b 91 at El-Amrah. Figure 157 Plan and section of the Type IC mud-brick corbel roofed tomb N 1586 from Naga el-Deir. Figure 158 Plan and section of the Type II tomb MO1 at Abu Roash. Figure 159 Plan and Section of the Type II tomb MO2 at Abu Roash. Figure 160 The early Type IIA tomb S 3121 at Saqqara. Figure 161 The early Type IIA tomb S 3120 at Saqqara. Figure 163 Abusir Type IIA tomb 13 C-3/13 B-1 with its reinforced stone lined roof and robber’s tunnel. Figure 162 The Type IIA tomb 10B-4 at Abusir with portcullis stone in place. Figure 164 The Type IIA tomb S 3042 at Saqqara with its three subterranean chambers and two magazines. Figure 165 The Type IIA tomb S 3477 at Saqqara. Figure 166 S 3024 an ‘early ‘Type IIA stairway tomb at Saqqara with its mud-brick partitioned burial chamber set 12.5 m down from the surface. Figure 168 Composite image of the substructure and superstructure of tomb S 2302. Figure 167 A large unidentified Type IIA ‘house type’ substructure at Saqqara. Figure 169 Type IIA Helwan tomb 255.H.8 with its robber’s tunnel. Figure 170 Plan and section of the deep Type IIA Helwan tomb 25.H.5. Figure 171 The multichambered Type IIA Helwan tomb 505.H.4. The robber’s tunnel can be seen on the right. Figure 172 Plan view of Helwan tomb 25.H.4 (Köhler’s Op. 2/1). Figure 173 The Type IIA tomb Op. 4/123 at Helwan. The robber’s tunnel is at the north end and starts outside the edge of the superstructure. Figure 174 The Type IIA Grave 240 at Kafr Amar. Figure 175 Plan and section of tomb 771 at the Bashkatib Cemetery with its portcullis and 0.75 m thick limestone roof. Figure 176 Plan and section of tomb 821 at the Bashkatib Cemetery, Lahun with its thin 0.15 m thick limestone roof. Figure 177 The type IIA tomb 560 at Sedment. Figure 178 The Type IIA burial chambers of tombs 562, 429 and 507 at Qau. Figure 179 The Type IIA tomb 3112 at Spur 5 in Cemetery 3100 at Badari. Figure 180 The Type IIA tomb 205 at Armant. Figure 181 The intact tomb 64 from Cemetery 24 at El-Kab. Figure 182 The Type IIA + IIA-C tomb S 3050 from Saqqara, showing the Type IIA burial chamber and descent in section. (NB. The section drawing is reversed by the draughtsman) Figure 183 Two of the three Third Dynasty Type IIA tombs at Badari – tombs 3227 and 3228 Figure 184 The Type IIA + IIA ‘twin’ mastaba N573 and N 587 in Cemetery 500–900 at Naga el-Deir Figure 185 The multichambered Type IIA tomb R1 at Reqaqnah. Figure 186 The multichambered Type IIA tomb R 40 at Reqaqnah. Figure 187 The enormous Type IIA tomb K1 at Beit Khallaf with its ‘U’ shaped stairway, six portcullises and stone lined burial chamber. Figure 188 The Type IIA + IIA ‘twin mastaba’ tomb K2 at Beit Khallaf. Figure 189 Stairway tomb 353 at Ballas. Figure 190 The Type IIB ‘deep’ staircase tomb Op. 4/62 at Helwan. Figure 191 The substructure of the Type IIB ‘deep’ staircase tomb N561b from Cemetery 500-900 at Naga el-Deir. Figure 192 Plan and section of the Type IIA-C stair-shaft Covington’s Tomb (also known as Tomb no. 1 or Mastaba T) at Giza with its solid mud-brick superstructure and enclosure wall. Figure 193 The Type IIA-C stair-shaft tomb of Hesyra at Saqqara with its differing substructure levels and solid mud-brick superstructure. Figure 194 The Type IIA-C + IIC ‘twin mastaba’ tomb S 3070 at Saqqara, showing southern shaft with burial chambers on two levels on the left and northern stair-shaft on the right with its single chamber. Figure 195 The Type IIA-C tomb N 593 from Naga el-Deir. Figure 196 Plan and section of the Type IIA-C stair-shaft tomb AS 33 from Abusir showing its multichambered substructure. Figure 197 Section looking west of the twin stair-shafts and burial chambers of AS 20, the tomb of Hetepi, at Abusir. Figure 198 Tomb 256.H.8, a typical Second Dynasty Type IIC shaft tomb from Helwan; the robbers’ tunnel into the burial chamber is clearly visible. (Drawn by the author after Saad 1957, pln. G) Figure 199 The Second Dynasty Type IIC shaft tombs 720 and 768 from the Bashkatib cemetery at Lahun Figure 200 The rock-cut burial chamber of the Third Dynasty Type IIC tomb AS 54 from Abusir. Figure 201 The Third Dynasty Type IIC + IIC tomb S 3518 at Saqqara. The southern shaft is now part of the baboon galleries. Figure 202 The Third Dynasty Type IIC + IIC tomb S 3517 at Saqqara. Figure 203 Tomb 287.H.6 at Helwan, with its stone lined shaft and burial chamber. Figure 204 The Third Dynasty Type IIC tombs 769 and 735 at Bashkatib Cemetery in Lahun. Figure 205 Plan and section of the early Fourth Dynasty Type IIC ‘Lake of Abusir tomb 1’. Figure 206 The Type IIC + IIA-C tomb of Ity at Abusir showing section of Type IIC southern shaft and burial chamber. The northern substructure is unfinished. The external walls of the superstructures are mud-brick, with an internal wall of limestone 0.8–1 Figure 207 The corbelled burial chamber and brick and stone lined ‘T’ shaped shaft of tomb no. 1 at Dahshur North, which was located amongst De Morgan’s ‘Mastabas du sud’. Figure 208 The Type IIC tomb DAS 9 (Ipy) at Dahshur South. The differing strata in the underlying geology can be clearly seen in the substructure section. Figure 209 The deep stone lined and saddle roofed burial chamber and shaft of DAS 32-4 (Iinefer) at Dahshur South. Figure 211 Plan and section of Mastaba II/1, which is attributed to Prince Netjer-Aperef. Figure 210 Plan and section of Mastaba I/1 in the ‘Lepsius Field’ at Dahshur. Figure 212 Enlarged view of the stone lined burial chamber and shaft of Mastaba II/1 showing the robber’s tunnel penetrating the shaft and burial chamber roof. Figure 213 The stone lined burial chamber of Mastaba II/1 at Dahshur showing the breached portcullis. Figure 214 Plan and section of Mastaba I/2 at Dahshur. The robber’s tunnel can be seen in the stone floor. Figure 215 Plan of the Type III + IIC ‘twin’ Mastaba No. 16 belonging to Nefermaat and Atet at Meidum. Figure 216 The burial chamber of Atet in Mastaba no. 16 at Meidum, together with its portcullis (Not to scale). Figure 217 Plan of the Type IIC + IIC ‘twin’ Mastaba No. 6 of Rahotep and Nefert at Meidum. Figure 218 Sections of the Type IIC shafts and burial chambers of Rahotep (on the left) and Nefert (right) in Mastaba No. 6 at Meidum (drawings of different scales) Figure 219 The burial chambers of Ranefer (left and centre) and the shaft and burial chamber of his spouse (right) from the Type IIC + IIC ‘twin’ Mastaba no. 9 at Meidum (drawings of different scales). Figure 220 Plan and section of the burial chamber and shaft from Mastaba No. 4, (Heneken) at Meidum. Figure 221 Plan and section of the Type IIC + IIC Mastaba No. 7 at Meidum. Figure 222 The burial chamber and shaft of the Type IIC Mastaba 416 at Meidum. Figure 223 The southern masonry lined burial chamber and rock-cut shaft of the Type IIC + IIC + IIC Mastaba No. 8 at Meidum. Figure 224 The masonry lined and corbelled burial chamber of Mastaba No. 1 at Meidum, which was accessed by a brick lined shaft, with a stone built base and portcullis emplacement. Figure 225 The Type IIC tomb 63 in the Far Western Cemetery of Meidum. Showing a typical stone lined burial chamber and shaft arrangement with portcullis. Figure 226 Unlined Type IIC gable roofed rock-cut burial chamber and shaft of tomb no. 55 in the Far Western Cemetery at Meidum. Figure 227 Plan and section of The Type IIC tomb N739 at Cemetery 500-900 in Naga el-Deir showing the shaft’s brick lining. Figure 228 The Type IIC Mastaba of Kamena at El-Kab, with its sandstone lined burial chamber (drawings of different scales). (Quibell 1896, pls. I.4 and XXIII) Figure 229 The stone built burial chamber of the Type III tomb A at Meidum. The descending passage has a stone step ‘H’, which would form a stop for the plug-stones used to seal it. Figure 230 The Type III North Peribolous tomb at Meidum, showing a rock-cut burial chamber that had been dug in the end face of the trench, which contained the stone lined and inclined entrance corridor. Figure 231 Sections and plan of the Type III stone built corbelled burial chamber of Nefermaat in Mastaba no. 16 at Meidum, sitting in its pit and encased with a protective liquid mud and stone block surround. The blocking to the chamber’s entrance can b Figure 232 The Type III substructure of Mastaba 17 sitting at the bottom of its pit at Meidum with its enormous stone ashlar roof and plug-stone blocked corridor. The robbers’ tunnel can be seen at the end of the corridor. Figure 233 The robbers’ tunnel into Mastaba 17; the block had been weakened by fire before being smashed. (Petrie, Mackay and Wainwright 1910, pl. X.5) Figure 234 Internal view of the mud-brick lined stairwell of the tomb of Den, with its restored wooden roof. Figure 235 The mud-brick lined stairway descending into the tomb of Den. The subsidiary graves originally ran over and covered the staircase. Figure 236 The stairway and mud-brick blocking of the tomb of Adjib exposed by Petrie. Figure 237 The recently re-excavated mud-brick lined ramp leading to the burial chamber of Semerkhet. Figure 238 The mud-brick staircase of the tomb of Qa’a. The remains of the limestone portcullis can be seen at the base of the stairs. Figure 239 The stone roofing beams over the trench cut stairway ‘C’ of the Type IIA tomb of Hotepsekhemwy/Raneb at Saqqara. The entrance to magazine C200 can be seen on the left. Figure 240 The present entrance to the tomb of Ninetjer, which is via the second portcullis shaft on the south-east corner of the mastaba of Nebkahor Idu. Figure 241 The rough ramp leading down to the northern entrance of the tomb of Khasekhemwy, as viewed from the west. (Dreyer et al. 1998, Taf. 13b) Courtesy of the DAI Cairo. Figure 242 The two corridors branching from the stairwell in the core of the Layer Pyramid. The upper passage continues until it reaches a cul-de-sac; the lower is a parallel passage leading to the burial chamber. Figure 243 The descending corridor and substructure of the Pyramid of Meidum. The large slabs over the entrance can be clearly seen. Figure 244 The inaccessible western entrance to the Bent Pyramid (marked by the arrow) 33.32 m up from its base. Figure 245 The Type ID tomb S 2105 at Saqqara, showing the stairway entrance concealed under the thick mud-brick walls of the superstructure. Figure 246 The orientation of stairways in Type ID tombs at Helwan. Figure 247 The stairways of the Helwan Type ID tombs 1.H.3 (left) and 701.H.3 (right) possibly placed to avoid other tombs in the necropolis. Figure 248 Limestone beams protecting the stairwell of the Type IIA tomb S 3121 at Saqqara. Figure 249 The Type IIA tomb 68.H.5 from Helwan with its external placed stairway. Figure 251 The stairway of the Type IIA tomb Op. 4/4 at Helwan descending within the perimeter of its superstructure. (Drawn by the author after Köhler 2003b, fig. 2) Figure 250 Longitudinal section of the entrance of the Type IIA 25.H.4 (Köhler’s Op. 2/1) at Helwan, showing the stairway cut into the slope of the wadi. Figure 252 Unpublished tombs with superstructures at Helwan. Type IIA stairway tombs 463.H.4, 464.H.4, 612.H.4, 636.H.4, 74.H.5, 8.H.5, 60.H.5, 71.H.5, 501.H.4 and 28.H.5. Type I