'Tibetanness' Under Threat? : Neo-Integrationism, Minority Education and Career Strategies in Qinghai, P.R. China

In 'Tibetanness' Under Threat?, Adrian Zenz pioneers an analysis of significant recent developments in Qinghai's Tibetan education system. Presently, Tibetan students can receive native language education from primary to tertiary levels, while university minority departments offer Tibetan-medium majors from computer science to secretarial studies. However, positive developments are threatened by the dire career prospects of Tibetan-medium graduates. Tibetans view marketisation as the greatest threat to ethnocultural survival, with their young generation being lured into a Chinese education by superior employment prospects. But Zenz questions the easy equation of Tibetan education as 'unselfish' ethnic preservation versus the Chinese route as egocentric careerism, arguing that the creative educational strategies of Tibetans in the Chinese education system are important for exploring and expressing new forms of 'Tibetanness' in modern China. ‘Tibetanness’ Under Threat? 4 Copyright 5 Contents 6 Acknowledgements 10 Notes on Transliteration 12 List of Figures 14 1. Introduction 18 Education, Market and Language 18 Sinicisation, Hybridity and the ‘End-of-Tibetanness’ 26 Structure, Agency and Strategy in Minority Education 30 ‘Tibet’—‘Tibetan’—‘Tibetanness’ 36 Gauging Factions and Groupings Within the ‘Educated Tibetan Community’ 41 2. Tibetans in Qinghai Province: An Analysis of Recent Developments 48 Contextualising the Fieldwork Setting 48 Qinghai’s Ethnic Landscape 53 Economic Developments, Market Reforms and the Employment Market 59 Qinghai’s Tibetan Education Situation 65 3. ‘Harmonious’ Solutions to the Nationalities Question 86 Introduction 86 Minority Rights Part I: Legal Frameworks and Political Trends 92 Chinese for Jobs: The Rising Force of Pragmatism 96 Minority Rights Part II: Han Centre-Periphery Models Past and Present 99 Wenming, Suzhi, Kexue: Cultural Control and Strategic Concealment 102 Contradictory ‘Harmony’: Gauging the Core Tensions within the State’s Minority Work Approach 105 4. Beyond Assimilation: The Tibetanisation of Tibetan Education in Qinghai 112 Making History: The Tibetanisation of Tibetan Educationin Qinghai 112 From Tibetanisation to Re-Tibetanisation 128 Tibetanisation in the Midst of Adversity: An Analysis of Enabling Factors 131 The 2010 ‘Qinghai gangyao’ Educational Reform Initiative: Threat to Tibetan Education? 134 QUN Campus Dynamics: ‘Tibetan Worlds’ in the Midst of Integrationism 138 Conclusions: Sinicisation Through Minority Education? 143 5. The Structural Dynamics of Finding ‘Adequate’ Employment in Marketised Times 148 Graduate Employment Statistics and Trends 148 Examining Minority Graduate Employment 164 Obligations, Anxieties, Preferences: The Significance of Formal Government Employment 184 Corruption and Language in Government Recruitment Processes 197 Conclusions: Career, Language and Ethnicity 208 6. Language, Career and ‘Helping my People’: Students’ Education and Employment Strategies 214 Learning “My Mother Tongue”: Education, Ethnicity and Language-Culture 214 “Facing Reality”: Pragmatist Strategies and Chinese-Medium Careers 218 Creative Approaches to the Dilemma: Track Mixing and Tibetan+ 224 The Ethnically-Concious Alternative: Venturing into Tibetan+ 231 Career and ‘Tibetanness’ Between Isolation and Engagement 236 7. Authenticity, Hybridity and ‘In-Betweenness’: ‘Tibetanness’ Between Danger and Doubt 244 Hybridity and Ethnic Authenticity 244 ‘Tibetanness’, Purity and Mixing 245 Authenticity and Linguistic Purity: The Case of Dawa 253 Hybridity, Ambiguity and Confusion 256 To Regret or To Not Regret? Dealing with ‘In-Betweenness’ 265 Conclusion: Digital ‘Tibetanness’, Instrumental-Primordialism, and the Battle Against Hybridity 276 8. Between Development and ‘Backwardness’: The Struggle for ‘Modern Tibetanness’ 282 Tibetan Discourses of Tibetan Modernity 282 Contrasting Perspectives on Tibetan Development 287 The Function and Significance of Discourses of Tibetan ‘Backwardness’ 292 Religion as Science: The Significance of Buddhism-Science Discourses 300 ‘Modern Tibetanness’: Concluding Thoughts 305 9. Conclusions: Marketisation and the ‘End-of-Tibetanness’? 314 Marketisation versus Protectionism: How Can ‘Tibetanness’ Survive? 319 Ethnicity versus Market: The Possibility of Ethnic Entrepreneurship 323 Hybridisation: The Beginning of the ‘End-of-Tibetanness’? 328 The Complex Way Ahead 334 Appendix A – Acronyms 338 Appendix B – Yearbook Data 339 Bibliography 344 Index 356 ‘Tibetanness’ Under Threat?......Page 4 Copyright......Page 5 Contents......Page 6 Acknowledgements......Page 10 Notes on Transliteration......Page 12 List of Figures......Page 14 Education, Market and Language......Page 18 Sinicisation, Hybridity and the ‘End-of-Tibetanness’......Page 26 Structure, Agency and Strategy in Minority Education......Page 30 ‘Tibet’—‘Tibetan’—‘Tibetanness’......Page 36 Gauging Factions and Groupings Within the ‘Educated Tibetan Community’......Page 41 Contextualising the Fieldwork Setting......Page 48 Qinghai’s Ethnic Landscape......Page 53 Economic Developments, Market Reforms and the Employment Market......Page 59 Qinghai’s Tibetan Education Situation......Page 65 Introduction......Page 86 Minority Rights Part I: Legal Frameworks and Political Trends......Page 92 Chinese for Jobs: The Rising Force of Pragmatism......Page 96 Minority Rights Part II: Han Centre-Periphery Models Past and Present......Page 99 Wenming, Suzhi, Kexue: Cultural Control and Strategic Concealment......Page 102 Contradictory ‘Harmony’: Gauging the Core Tensions within the State’s Minority Work Approach......Page 105 Making History: The Tibetanisation of Tibetan Educationin Qinghai......Page 112 From Tibetanisation to Re-Tibetanisation......Page 128 Tibetanisation in the Midst of Adversity: An Analysis of Enabling Factors......Page 131 The 2010 ‘Qinghai gangyao’ Educational Reform Initiative: Threat to Tibetan Education?......Page 134 QUN Campus Dynamics: ‘Tibetan Worlds’ in the Midst of Integrationism......Page 138 Conclusions: Sinicisation Through Minority Education?......Page 143 Graduate Employment Statistics and Trends......Page 148 Examining Minority Graduate Employment......Page 164 Obligations, Anxieties, Preferences: The Significance of Formal Government Employment......Page 184 Corruption and Language in Government Recruitment Processes......Page 197 Conclusions: Career, Language and Ethnicity......Page 208 Learning “My Mother Tongue”: Education, Ethnicity and Language-Culture......Page 214 “Facing Reality”: Pragmatist Strategies and Chinese-Medium Careers......Page 218 Creative Approaches to the Dilemma: Track Mixing and Tibetan+......Page 224 The Ethnically-Concious Alternative: Venturing into Tibetan+......Page 231 Career and ‘Tibetanness’ Between Isolation and Engagement......Page 236 Hybridity and Ethnic Authenticity......Page 244 ‘Tibetanness’, Purity and Mixing......Page 245 Authenticity and Linguistic Purity: The Case of Dawa......Page 253 Hybridity, Ambiguity and Confusion......Page 256 To Regret or To Not Regret? Dealing with ‘In-Betweenness’......Page 265 Conclusion: Digital ‘Tibetanness’, Instrumental-Primordialism, and the Battle Against Hybridity......Page 276 Tibetan Discourses of Tibetan Modernity......Page 282 Contrasting Perspectives on Tibetan Development......Page 287 The Function and Significance of Discourses of Tibetan ‘Backwardness’......Page 292 Religion as Science: The Significance of Buddhism-Science Discourses......Page 300 ‘Modern Tibetanness’: Concluding Thoughts......Page 305 9. Conclusions: Marketisation and the ‘End-of-Tibetanness’?......Page 314 Marketisation versus Protectionism: How Can ‘Tibetanness’ Survive?......Page 319 Ethnicity versus Market: The Possibility of Ethnic Entrepreneurship......Page 323 Hybridisation: The Beginning of the ‘End-of-Tibetanness’?......Page 328 The Complex Way Ahead......Page 334 Appendix A – Acronyms......Page 338 Appendix B – Yearbook Data......Page 339 Bibliography......Page 344 Index......Page 356 In 'Tibetanness' Under Threat? , Adrian Zenz pioneers an analysis of remarkable recent developments in Qinghai's Tibetan education system. While marketisation processes threaten these positive developments, educational strategies of Tibetans in the Chinese system explore new ways of being 'Tibetan' in China.