سکه‌های گنجینه واتلینگتون، پادشاهان و ارتش بزرگ وایکینگ‌ها در آکسفوردشر، ۸۷۵-۸۸۰ میلادی

The Watlington Hoard was discovered in southern Oxfordshire in 2015 by a metal-detectorist, and acquired by the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford in 2017. A nationally-important find of coinage and metalwork, and the first major Viking-Age hoard from the county, it dates from the late 870s, a fundamental and tumultuous period in Britain’s history. The contents of the hoard include a highly significant collection of over 200 silver pennies, mostly of Alfred the Great, king of Wessex, and Ceolwulf II, king of Mercia, transforming our understanding of the coinage in this period, and 23 silver and gold pieces of contemporary metalwork much of which was derived from Scandinavia. Presenting the complete publication of the objects and coins in the Watlington Hoard – including an important re-assessment of the coinage of the late 870s – the authors discuss its wider implications for our understanding of hoarding in late 9th-century southern Britain, interactions between the kingdoms of Wessex and Mercia, and the movements of the Viking Great Army after the Battle of Edington in 878. The book also relates another side to the hoard’s story, beginning with its discovery and excavation, charting its path through the conservation work and acquisition by the Ashmolean Museum to the public outreach projects which ran alongside the scholarly research into the hoard. Dr John Naylor is the Portable Antiquities Scheme’s National Finds Adviser for Early Medieval and Later Coinage, based in the Heberden Coin Room at the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. His research focuses on the archaeology and numismatics of early medieval Europe. ; Dr Eleanor Standley is Curator of Medieval Archaeology in the Department of Antiquities at the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford and Associate Professor of Later Medieval Archaeology in the School of Archaeology, University of Oxford. Her research focuses on the later medieval period in Britain and Europe, with a special interest in daily life and the socio-cultural significance of everyday objects. Title Page 3 Copyright page 4 Contents Page 5 List of Figures and Image Credits 7 The Watlington Hoard uncovered: from discovery to acquisition and beyond 22 Figure 2.1 Map showing the location of Watlington within the broader region. 23 Figure 2.2. A view of the field where the Watlington Hoard was discovered. 24 Figure 2.3. The first silver ingot upon discovery. 25 Figure 2.4. The first silver penny upon discovery, a Cross-and-Lozenge type of Alfred the Great (see cat. 2.178 for the full details of this coin). 26 Figure 2.5. The first group of silver pennies uncovered and removed prior to the excavation of the remainder of the hoard. 27 Figure 2.6. A marker of three stones placed discretely over the hoard. It would not be excavated for another five days! 28 Figure 2.7. The finder, James Mather, and the exposed hoard (centre of trench between the two scale bars), the arm-rings, some ingots and a few coins visible, poking out of the earth. 29 Figure 2.8. Sketch plan showing the positions of separated ingots in relation to the hoard and trench. 30 Figure 2.10. Photograph of the trench with opposing quadrants removed. 33 Figure 2.9. The technique of opposing quadrants to investigate pits and deposits. 33 Figure 2.11. Drawing of trench before cleaning and defining the hoard. 34 Figure 2.12. Photograph of the hoard cleaned and defined. 35 Figure 2.13. Drawing of hoard after cleaning. 35 Figure 2.14. David Williams photographing the hoard with James Mather looking on. 36 Figure 2.15. Excavating around the hoard to produce a liftable block. 37 Figure 2.16. The excavated soil block awaiting wrapping and lifting. The coin within the arm-rings and the ingot at the bottom centre of the photograph were removed before wrapping. 38 Figure 2.17. The coin being removed. The ingot on the left of the block was also removed. 39 Figure 2.18 The clingfilm-wrapped block being lifted into its temporary container. 39 Figure 2.19. Top: the hoard, as received. Middle: first X-ray. Bottom: second X-ray. 42 Figure 2.20. Stones wedged through the arm-rings, plus scattered coins. Coin = 20mm in diameter. 43 Figure 2.21. Two fragmentary coins, assembled from pieces found in different places in the excavated area. Top: cat. 2.44; bottom: cat. 2.31. 43 Figure 2.22. Silver ingot with attached fragment of carbonised wood, as found. 44 Figure 2.23. Hack-gold fragment (AN2017.24; cat. 1.23). 44 Figure 2.24. Silver chloride on surface of coin (WH.21/cat. 2.76). 45 Figure 2.25. Arm-ring (AN2017.4; cat. 1.18) with silver chloride corrosion across the surface of the object. 46 Figure 2.26. Ingot with both silver chloride and silver sulphide corrosion (AN2017.12; cat 1.5). 46 Figure 2.27. Coin (WH.164/cat. 2.21) obverse and reverse before conservation (left) and after cleaning with Industrial Methylated Spirits and deionised water (right). 47 Figure 2.28. Arm-ring fragment (AN2017.23; cat. 1.17) after cleaning to reveal the detail of stamped decoration. 48 Figure 2.29. Ingot (AN2017.8; cat. 1.1) after cleaning. Note the nicks along the edge of the ingot. 48 Figure 2.30. obverse and reverse of a coin with little ware to the surface (WH.1/cat. 2.59). 49 Figure 2.31. Coin (WH.11/cat. 2.3) left before conservation and right after reconstructing the fragments. Note the bottom fragment of the pre-reconstruction shows the reverse, rather than obverse, of the coin. 49 Figure 2.32. Hooked-tag (AN2017.25; cat. 1.22) after cleaning and reconstruction. Note the orange/brown corrosion on the reverse of the fragment. 50 Figure 2.33. Map showing the Ashmolean Museum and The Oxfordshire Museum, and the location of the Oxfordshire county roadshow events hosted by the libraries of Bicester, Faringdon and Watlington. 52 Figure 2.34. A school group taking part in replica object-handling in the Ashmolean Museum. 55 Figure 2.35. Dr Julian Baker of the Ashmolean Museum (right), discussing the hoard with visitors at the Bicester Library roadshow. 56 Figure 2.36. One of the art installations created during the Watlington Primary School Project. 58 The archaeology and landscape of the Upper Thames Valley in the 9th century 60 Figure 3.1. Map of the Upper Thames Valley and surrounding area showing locations and features discussed in the text. 60 Figure 3.2. Shared coin designs between Mercia and Wessex: the Lunettes type silver pennies. Top: Burgred of Mercia (PAS KENT-4FC763); middle: Æthelred I of Wessex (PAS CAM-D6710C); bottom: Alfred the Great of Wessex (PUBLIC-A00281). Scale 2:1. 62 Figure 3.3. Map showing the known movements, raids and winter camps of the Viking Great Army from 872–79/80. 63 Figure 3.4. A selection of 9th-century objects from South Oxfordshire reported to the PAS. Scale 1:1. 66 Oxfordshire, Wessex, and Mercia in the Age of Alfred the Great 69 Figure 4.1. The territory of the Gewisse in the early Anglo-Saxon period (after Blair 1994: 36). 72 Figure 4.2. The hundreds of Berkshire along the Ashdown hills. 74 Figure 4.3. ‘Ceolwulf’s Tree’ and ‘Hostage’s Bæce’ recorded in the bounds of the charter S 217 relating to land at Brightwell Baldwin (to the west of Watlington; see Figure 3.1, above). 79 Figure 4.4. Sites named in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle associated with the early West Saxon dynasty (with annal year), along with other significant places and the line of the treaty dividing territory between King Alfred and Guthrum. 82 The coinage of Wessex and Mercia, c.875–79: 84 Figure 5.1. Example of the Two Emperors coins of Alfred the Great (cat. 2.61; moneyer: Dudecil) and Ceolwulf II (cat. 2.4; moneyer: Cuthberht) from the Watlington Hoard. Scale 2:1. 84 Figure 5.2. Late Roman gold solidus of Two Emperors type, the prototype for the design used by Alfred and Ceolwulf II. This example is in the name of the Emperor Gratian (367–83) and was struck at Trier (Germany). Scale 2:1. 85 Figure 5.3. The Two Emperors coinage by obverse style. Top left: style 1 (cat. 2.64); top right: style 2 (cat. 2.4); bottom left: style 3 (cat. 2.59); bottom right: style 4 (cat. 2.5). Scale 2:1. 86 Figure 5.4. The Cross-and-Lozenge coinage: ‘Transitional’ Style obverses. Top: cat. 2.69, 2.70; bottom: cat. 2.71, 2.72. Scale 2:1. 89 Figure 5.5. Distinctive letter ‘A’ seen on Cross-and-Lozenge coins in the ‘Transitional’ Style. Top: cat. 2.69, 2.70; bottom: cat. 2.71, 2.72. 90 Figure 5.6. The Cross-and-Lozenge coinage: ‘Transitional’ style reverses. Top: cat. 2.69, 2.70; bottom: cat. 2.71, 2.72. Scale 2:1. 91 Figure 5.7. The Cross-and-Lozenge coinage: Canterbury Style A obverses. Alfred the Great: cat. 2.73 (left), cat. 2.76. (middle). Archbishop Æthelred of Canterbury: cat. 2.1 (right). Scale 2:1. 93 Figure 5.8. A unique Canterbury Style A Roman-style obverse bust of Alfred the Great for the moneyer Diarmund (cat. 2.80). Scale 2:1. 93 Figure 5.9. The Cross-and-Lozenge coinage: Canterbury Style A reverses. Top row (from left): Reverse 1 (cat. 2.75); Reverse 2 (cat. 2.1). Bottom row (from left): Reverse 3 (cat. 2.78); Reverse 4 (cat. 2.80). 94 Figure 5.10. The Cross-and-Lozenge coinage: Canterbury Style B obverses (left: cat. 2.88; right: cat. 2.90). Scale 2:1. 95 Figure 5.11. The Cross-and-Lozenge coinage: Canterbury Style B reverses. Left: Reverse 4 (cat. 2.79); right: Reverse 5 (cat. 2.87). Scale 2:1. 95 Figure 5.12.The Cross-and-Lozenge coinage: Canterbury Style C, Reverse 6. Top: Style Ci bust (cat. 2.94); bottom: Style Cii bust (cat. 2.100). Scale 2:1. 96 Figure 5.13. The Cross-and-Lozenge coinage: London Style reverse types. Top row: Reverse type A (saltire): cat. 2.40 (Ceolwulf II, moneyer: Liafwald), cat. 2.106 (Alfred, moneyer: Cenred). Middle row: Reverse type B (cross): cat. 2.27 (Ceolwulf II, moneye 99 Figure 5.14. The Cross-and-Lozenge coinage: London obverses of Style 1. Top row: Style 1a (cat. 2.106), Style 1b (cat. 2.124. Bottom row: Style 1c (cat. 2.27), Style 1d (cat. 2.8). Scale 2:1. 100 Figure 5.15. Cross-and-Lozenge obverse dies with inscriptions proclaiming Alfred as ‘king of the Saxons and Mercians’ (left; cat. 2.124) and ‘king of the Mercians’ (middle; cat. 2.155); right, a die of Ceolwulf II probably produced by the same die cutter 103 Figure 5.16. The Cross-and-Lozenge coinage: London obverses of Style 2 (left: Ceolwulf II, cat. 2.19; right: Alfred, cat. 2.129). Scale 2:1. 104 Figure 5.17. The Cross-and-Lozenge coinage: London obverses of Style 3 (left: Alfred, cat. 2.149; middle: Ceolwulf II, cat. 2.9; right: Ceolwulf II, cat. 2.48). Scale 2:1. 105 Figure 5.18. The Cross-and-Lozenge coinage: London obverses of Style 4 (left: cat. 2.25; right: cat. 2.55). Scale 2:1. 105 Figure 5.19. The Cross-and-Lozenge coinage: London obverses of Style 5 (left: Ceolwulf II, cat. 2.23; right: Alfred, cat. 2.132). Scale 2:1. 106 Figure 5.20. The Cross-and-Lozenge coinage: London obverses in Style 6 (left: Ceolwulf II, cat. 2.16; middle: Alfred, cat. 2.133; right: Alfred, cat. 2.158). Scale 2:1. 107 Figure 5.21. The Cross-and-Lozenge coinage: London Style 7 (cat. 2.13). Scale 2:1. 108 Figure 5.22. The Cross-and-Lozenge coinage: examples of coins in the Winchester Style from the Watlington Hoard. Left: cat. 2.171 (moneyer: Dunna; reverse type 2); middle: cat. 2.175 (moneyer: Heahstan; reverse type 3; right: cat. 2.179 (moneyer: Wulfred; 110 Figure 5.23. The Cross-and-Lozenge coinage: West Mercian ‘Lulla’ group. Penny of the moneyer Lulla (cat. 2.185). Scale 2:1. 111 Figure 5.24. The Cross-and-Lozenge coinage: West Mercian ‘Lulla’ group. Pennies of the moneyers Eaccah? (cat. 2.180), Ethelred (cat. 2.183) and Hea[…] (cat. 2.185). Scale 2:1. 112 Figure 5.25 The Cross-and-Lozenge coinage: possible West Mercian coins. Pennies of the moneyers Regingild (cat. 2.188) and Wibearht (cat. 2.189). Scale 2:1. 113 The coins of the Watlington Hoard 116 Figure 6.1 Coinage in the Watlington Hoard by issuer. 117 Figure 6.2 Examples of the designs of the Anglo-Saxon coinage in the Watlington hoard. Top row: the Two Emperors type (left: Ceolwulf II, cat. 2.4; right: Alfred, cat. 66). Middle row: the Cross-and-Lozenge type (left: Ceolwulf II, cat. 2.11; right: Alfre 118 Figure 6.3 The contents of the Watlington hoard by issue and issuer. 119 Figure 6.4 Weight distribution of the Two Emperors type silver pennies in the Watlington Hoard. Excludes chipped or fragmented coins. 120 Figure 6.5 Cross-and-Lozenge type coinage by overall Style in the Watlington Hoard. 121 Figure 6.6 Cross-and-Lozenge type coinage in the Watlington Hoard in comparison to the corpus of other Cross-and-Lozenge finds (excluding the ‘near Leominster’ Hoard). 122 Figure 6.7 Weight distribution of the Cross-and-Lozenge type pennies in the Watlington Hoard. Excludes chipped or fragmented coins. 122 Figure 6.8 The composition of the Canterbury Style Cross-and-Lozenge type pennies in the Watlington Hoard by sub-group. 124 Figure 6.9 Weight distribution of the Canterbury Style Cross-and-Lozenge type pennies in the Watlington Hoard by sub-group. Excludes chipped or fragmented coins. 124 Figure 6.10 London Style Cross-and-Lozenge type pennies in the Watlington Hoard by subgroup and issuer. 126 Figure 6.11 Weight distribution of the London Style Cross-and-Lozenge type pennies by issuer. Excludes chipped or fragmented coins. 127 Figure 6.12 Weight distribution of the London Style Cross-and-Lozenge type pennies by subgroup. Excludes chipped or fragmented coins. 127 Figure 6.13 Weight distribution of the Winchester Style Cross-and-Lozenge type pennies in the Watlington Hoard. Excludes chipped or fragmented coins. 129 Figure 6.14 Weight distribution of the ‘West Mercian’ Style Cross-and-Lozenge type pennies in the Watlington Hoard. Excludes chipped or fragmented coins. 130 Figure 6.15 The Carolingian deniers in the Watlington Hoard. Top: Louis II (cat. 2.202). Bottom: Charles the Bald (cat. 2.203). Scale 2:1. 134 The non-numismatic objects of the Watlington hoard 136 Figure 7.1. The non-numismatic objects of the Watlington Hoard. 137 Figure 7.2. Silver ingot (cat. 1.2) exhibiting nick marks along two edges. 138 Figure 7.3. Silver arm-ring (cat. 1.16) showing small nick on one edge (magnified). 140 Figure 7.4. Silver broad-band arm-ring fragment (cat 1.17). 142 Figure 7.5. Silver single-rod arm-ring with circular section and tapered, twisted terminals (cat. 1.18). 143 Figure 7.6. Silver single-rod arm-ring with lozenge-shaped section and tapered, twisted terminals (cat. 1.19). 145 Figure 7.7. Fragment of a silver neck-ring of Hårdh’s Type 6 (cat. 1.20). 146 Figure 7.8. Figure 7.7. Fragment of a silver neck-ring of Hårdh’s Type 6 (cat. 1.21). 146 Figure 7.10. Silver hooked-tag from Thaxted (Essex; PAS LON-585A83). Scale 2:1. 148 Figure 7.9. Fragment of a silver hooked tag (cat. 1.22). 148 Figure 7.11. Fragment of a twisted gold rod (cat. 1.23). 150 Figure 7.12. Weights of the silver objects in the Watlington Hoard (labelled with catalogue numbers). 151 Figure 7.13. Map showing the locations of Viking-Age hoards of Scandinavian character found in England. 153 Money in southern England in the 870s in the light of the Watlington hoard 155 Figure 8.1 Cross-and-Lozenge type (cat. 2.124) and Horizontal/Two-Line type (cat. 2.193) of Alfred struck by the moneyer Dealing. Scale 2:1. 159 The Watlington Hoard in Context 168 Figure 9.1. Map of the Upper Thames Valley and surrounding area showing findspots of objects discussed in the text. Red lines: routes of Roman roads; black lines: route (approx.) of Icknield Way and Ridgeway. 169 Figure 9.2. Silver ingots found in the Upper Thames Valley area. (a) Winterbourne (West Berkshire; PAS BERK-1EAAE4. (b) Fyfield (Oxfordshire; PAS BERK-A821F2). (c) Northmoor (Oxfordshire; PAS OXON-993704). 170 Figure 9.3. Hooked tags with ladder-like decoration reported to the PAS.(a) Great Munden (Hertfordshire; PAS BH-C1F701). (b) Beachampton (Buckinghamshire; PAS BUC-7D52D5). (c) Childrey (Oxfordshire; PAS WILT-7A7D62). (d) Wallingford area (PAS BERK-126B30) 171 Figure 9.4. Examples of coinage of Alfred, Ceolwulf II and the Carolingian Franks found in the broader region: (a) Cross-and-Lozenge halfpenny of Ceolwulf II, Pitstone (Buckinghamshire; PAS BUC-08EE42). (b) Two-Line/Horizontal type of Alfred, Blewbury (Ox 172 Figure 9.5 Map of southern Britain showing the location of hoards discussed in the text. 174 Figure 9.6 Two complete silver ingots and four items of hacksilver from the Croydon Hoard in the collections of the Ashmolean Museum (AN1909.555–561). 176 Figure 9.7 Top: a polyhedral weight of a type associated with Viking activity from Stone (Buckinghamshire; PAS BUC-F89F17). Bottom: a copper-alloy Northumbrian penny (or styca) from Padbury (Buckinghamshire; PAS BUC-36F5D1). Scale 2:1. 179 Figure 9.8 Map showing the distribution of finds in south-west England typically associated with the Viking activity and locations mentioned in the text. 181 The non-numismatic objects 188 Figure 10.1. Silver ingot with multiple testing-nicks (cat. 1.2). 192 Figure 10.2. Illustration of the penannular arm-ring (cat. 1.16). AN2017.3. Drawn by Jeffrey Wallis. 193 Figure 10.3. Illustration of the broad-band arm-ring (cat. 1.17). AN2017.23. Drawn by Jeffrey Wallis. 193 Figure 10.4. Illustration of the plain annular arm-ring (cat. 1.18). AN2017.4. Drawn by Jeffrey Wallis. 194 Figure 10.5. Detail of stamped decoration of annular arm-ring (cat. 1.19). © Ashmolean Museum, University of Oxford. AN2017.5 194 Figure 10.6. Illustration of the decorated annular arm-ring (cat. 1.19). AN2017.5. Drawn by Jeffrey Wallis. 195 Figure 10.7. Illustration of neck-ring fragment (cat. 1.20). AN2017.6. Drawn by Jeffrey Wallis. 195 Figure 10.8. Illustration of neck-ring fragment with hooked fastener (cat. 1.21). AN2017.7. Drawn by Jeffrey Wallis. 198 Figure 10.9. Illustration of the obverse of the hooked-tag fragment (cat. 1.22). AN2017.25. Drawn by Jeffrey Wallis. 198 Figure 10.10. Illustration of the hack-gold fragment (cat. 1.23). AN2017.24. Drawn by Jeffrey Wallis. 199 List of Tables 12 The Watlington Hoard uncovered: from discovery to acquisition and beyond 22 Table 2.1 Numbers of people who engaged with the hoard either as visitors or as event-participants during the co-ordinated public-engagement programme. 53 Table 2.2 Number of attendees at the three county roadshow events. 55 The coinage of Wessex and Mercia, c.875–79: 84 Table 5.1. Moneyers of the Two Emperors and Cross-and-Lozenge coinages. The names of moneyers listed in italics are not represented in the Watlington Hoard. 92 Table 5.2. Moneyers striking in the Cross-and-Lozenge London Style for Alfred the Great. 101 Table 5.3. Moneyers striking in the Cross-and-Lozenge London Style for Alfred the Great. 102 The coins of the Watlington Hoard 116 Table 6.1 Moneyers working in the Canterbury Style by subgroup. 126 The non-numismatic objects of the Watlington hoard 136 Table 7.1. Hoards with plain, lozenge-sectioned rod penannular rings, dated to the 9th century. 141 The non-numismatic objects 188 Table 10.1 The surface silver content of the silver jewellery and two of the ingots. 189 The coins 201 Table 11.2. Summary of the die codes and catalogue numbers for each issuer by coin type. 238 Chapter 1 19 Introduction 19 Chapter 2 22 The Watlington Hoard uncovered: from discovery to acquisition and beyond 22 2.1 Finding the Watlington Hoard 24 2.2 The excavation and lifting of the Watlington Hoard 30 2.3 The Table-Top Excavation of the Watlington Hoard Soil Block: observations and inferences 41 2.4 Further Conservation of the Watlington Hoard 45 2.5 Public-engagement with the Watlington Hoard: nationally important archaeology for all 50 Chapter 3 60 The archaeology and landscape of the Upper Thames Valley in the 9th century 60 John Naylor 60 Chapter 4 69 Oxfordshire, Wessex, and Mercia in the Age of Alfred the Great 69 Ryan Lavelle 69 Chapter 5 84 The coinage of Wessex and Mercia, c.875–79: 84 John Naylor 84 Chapter 6 116 The coins of the Watlington Hoard 116 John Naylor 116 with a contribution by Simon Coupland 116 Chapter 7 136 The non-numismatic objects of the Watlington hoard 136 Jane Kershaw 136 Chapter 8 155 Money in southern England in the 870s in the light of the Watlington hoard 155 Julian Baker 155 Chapter 9 168 The Watlington Hoard in Context 168 John Naylor 168 Catalogue 1 188 The non-numismatic objects 188 Compiled and edited by Eleanor Standley 188 Catalogue 2 201 The coins 201 John Naylor 201 A revised checklist of finds of Two Emperors and Cross-and-Lozenge type coins 239 Compiled by John Naylor 239 Appendix 1 239 A visual summary guide to the classification of the Two Emperors and Cross-and-Lozenge type pennies 244 John Naylor 244 Appendix 2 244 Appendix 3 248 The moneyers of the Two Emperors and Cross-and-Lozenge type pennies 248 Appendix 4 250 Concordance table showing the spellings of moneyer’s names 250 Bibliography 251