شهرنشینی استان‌های شمال‌غربی امپراتوری روم: رویکردی حقوقی و کاربردی به زندگی شهری در گال روم، ژرمانیا اینفریور و بریتانیا

Cover Title Page Copyright page Contents Page Acknowledgements Introduction The study of the urbanisation of the North-Western provinces Chapter 1 Object and Aims 1.1 Ancient cities: ancient definitions Figure 1: The north-western provinces of the Roman Empire: Gaul Narbonensis, the Western Alps - i.e. the provinces of Alpes Graiae, Alpes Cottiae, and Alpes Maritimae - the Three Gauls, Germania Inferior, and Britannia. Introduction 1.2 The object of research 1.2.1 A juridical definition 1.2.2 Morphology and size 1.2.3 A functional definition 1.2.4 A three-fold definition Chapter 2 The Dawn of Urbanism Introduction 2.1 The process of urbanisation 2.1.1 Iron Age ‘oppida’: terminology and problematics Figure 2: Map showing the large variety of pre-Roman sites in temperate Europe (Buchsenschutz 2004: 339). 2.1.2 The process of urbanisation Figure 3: The polyfocal complex of Aulnat/Corent (Poux 2014: 164). Figure 4: The polyfocal site of Camulodunum (Fulford 2015: 61). Figure 5: Reconstruction of the oppidum of Bibracte (Fernández-Götz et al. 2014b: 5). 2.2 The development of urbanism in southern Gaul 2.2.1 The foundation of Marseille Figure 6: Main agglomerations in Southern Gaul (Garcia 2002: 97). 2.2.2 Urban concentration (4th to 2nd centuries BC) 2.2.3 The Romans and the construction of a province Figure 7: Possible reconstruction of the territory of main ethnic groups in pre-Roman southern Gaul (Nuninger 2002: 12). Figure 8: The civitates of Gaul Narbonensis (Garcia 2002: 99). 2.3 The development of urbanism in the rest of Gaul and Germania Inferior 2.3.1 The Late Iron Age Figure 9: A reconstruction of the fortified farm and its settlement at Paule (Yves Menez Drac Bretagne / Laurence Stéphanon, AGP) (http://kreizyarcheo.bzh/sites-archeologiques/sites-caracteristiqu es/camp-de-saint-symphorien [last accessed: 15/03/2020]). 2.3.2 The oppidum Figure 10: Left: Plan of the Titelberg plateau: 1: Rampart enclosing the public space; 2: Excavation of the monumental centre; 3: Inhabited centre; 4: Military (?) Roman area (Metzler et al. 2006 : 200); 5: Oriental gate; 6: Occidental gate. Right: Monume Figure 11: A reconstruction of the monumental centre of the oppidum of Corent (Poux 2014: 163). 2.3.3 Regional differences in character and distribution of Late Iron Age oppida Figure 12: The distribution and size of Late Iron Age oppida in temperate Europe (Collis 2014: 20). Figure 13: The nucleated, multi-phase farmsteads (a) from the 1st century BC to the 1st century AD at Weert, situated within (b) a 2nd-century-BC enclosure (Gerritsen et al. 2006: 263). 2.3.4 The process of ‘centralisation’ Figure 14: The territorial organisation of the civitas of the Bellovaci (Fichtl 2013a: 296). Figure 15: The pyramidal settlement system of the civitates of the Leuci and Mediomatrici. The picture shows the main routes and the oppida’s and agglomerations’ theoretical territories (Féliu 2014: 237). 2.4. The development of urbanism in Britain 2.4.1 The British Iron Age Figure 16: Regional differences in settlement patterns in Iron Age Britain (Cunliffe 2012: 304). Figure 17: Aerial photography of Yarnbury Castle, Wiltshire (Payne 2006: 9). 2.4.2 The ‘developed hillforts’ Figure 18: Examples of banjo enclosures (Moore 2012: 404). Figure 19: Ham Hill, Somerset (Sharples 2014: 225). Figure 20: Danebury, after Cunliffe 1995 (Sharples 2014: 227). Figure 21: Hillfort territories in North Wiltshire compared to Fürstensitze territories in west-central Europe (Harding 2012: 122). 2.4.3 The polyfocal complexes Figure 22: The distribution of oppida and polyfocal complexes in Britain (after Millett 1990 and Moore 2012). Figure 23: The polyfocal sites of Grim’s Ditch (Lambrick and Robinson eds. 2009: 367). Figure 24: The polyfocal site of Bagendon (Moore 2012: 393). Figure 25: Verlamion (St. Albans) (Lambrick and Robinson 2009 eds: 366). 2.4.4 Regional differences in character and distribution of polyfocal complexes and oppida Figure 26: Left: Geology of Britain (British Geology Survey). Right: the Highland and Lowland Zones (Jones and Mattingly 2002: 3). Figure 27: Distribution of polyfocal sites and banjo enclosures in south-central England (Moore 2012: 396). Chapter 3 The Integration of the North-Western Provinces into the Roman Empire 3.1 The Romans and the political integration of cities 3.1.1 The ‘civitas’ 3.1.2 Colonies 3.1.3 Municipia 3.1.4 Political integration in the Roman Empire: the ius Latii Introduction 3.2 A new administrative system Figure 28: The civitates of Roman Gaul and Germania Inferior. 3.2.1 A political explanation Figure 29: The territory of the civitates of Gaul and Germania Inferior. In red: the territory of the civitates as reconstructed by scholars on the basis of historical and epigraphic evidence; in black: the territory of the civitas as predicted by the Thi 3.3. The juridical status in the north-western provinces 3.3.1 Gallia Narbonensis 3.3.2 The ‘redactio in formam provinciae’ Figure 30: Cities’ juridical status in Narbonensis. 3.3.3 The introduction of the ius Latii in Gaul Figure 31: Cities’ juridical status in the Three Gauls in AD 212. 3.3.4 Status in the Alpine provinces 3.3.5 Germania Inferior Figure 32: Cities’ juridical status in Germania Inferior. 3.3.6 Britannia Figure 33: Cities’ juridical status in Roman Britain. Table 1: Number of attestations of the words ‘civitas’ per province. 3.4 Juridical status and city rank Figure 34: The relationship between a city’s status and its rank within the settlement hierarchy in Narbonensis. Figure 35: The relationship between a city’s status and its rank within the settlement hierarchy in Aquitania. Figure 36: The relationship between a city’s status and its rank within the settlement hierarchy in Belgica. Figure 37: The relationship between a city’s status and its rank within the settlement hierarchy in Lugdunensis. 3.4.1 The limitations of the juridical approach Figure 38: The relationship between a city’s status and its rank within the settlement hierarchy in Britannia. Table 2: The average size (expressed in hectares) of self-governing cities and subordinate ones. Figure 39: The distribution of inscriptions mentioning local magistrates in the north-western provinces. Figure 40: Pie charts showing the proportion of the different offices attested in the north-western provinces and in the capital Lugdunum. Figure 41: The distribution of epigraphically attested aediles. Figure 42: The distribution of individuals who had completed their cursus honorum; e.g. ‘omnibus honoribus’ or ‘omnibus honoribus apud suos (or inter eos) functus’. Figure 43: The distribution of duumvires epigraphically attested. Figure 44: Scatterplot showing the correlation between city size and status. Table 1: Number of attestations of the words ‘civitas’ per province. Table 2: The average size (expressed in hectares) of self-governing cities and subordinate ones. Chapter 4 The Self-Governing Cities: Elements and Rhythms of Urbanisation Introduction 4.2 Urban infrastructures and civic buildings 4.2.1 Stone circuit walls Figure 45: The walled cities of Gaul, Germania Inferior, and the Western Alps in the High Empire. Figure 46: Stone walls in Britain (c. AD 200). Figure 47: The city walls of Autun (left) and Vienne (right) (Goodman 2007: 97 and 90). Figure 48: The city plan of Fréjus (left) and Cologne (right) (Goodman 2007: 110 and Coquelet 2011: 72). Figure 49: Colchester city plan. Figure 50: Roman York - the city had grown far beyond the area enclosed by the circuit walls (Ottaway 2015: 46). Figure 51: Roman Gloucester - the extra-mural occupation (Hurst 2005: 295). Table 3: City status and defensive stone walls. 4.2.2 Arches Figure 52: The arches of the north-western provinces. Table 4: Arches in the north-western provinces. 4.2.3 Forum Figure 53: The distribution of fora in the north-western provinces. Figure 54: The distribution of curiae in the north-western provinces. Figure 55: Glanum in I BC (Gros and Torelli 2010: 302). Figure 56: Glanum in Roman times (Gros and Torelli 2010: 303). Figure 57: Glanum - a reconstruction of the forum (http://patoune.blog.laprovence.com/les-glanums-a35278). Figure 58: The forum of Bavay (Severan phase) (Coquelet 2011: 131). Figure 59: The forum of Martigny (Wiblé 2012: 283). Figure 60: Left - the forum of Vannes (Bouet 2012a: 26). Right - the second phase (mid-2nd century AD) of the forum of Périgueux (Bouet 2012b: 106). Figure 61: The forum of Velleia (left) and Ruscino (right) (Gros 1990: 49 and 60). Figure 62: The forum of Périgueux in its first phase (Tiberian-Claudian time) (Bouet 2012a: 27). Figure 63: From left: the forum of Xanten (Coquelet 2011: 139), Verulamium, and Silchester, where the basilicae have all been dated to c. AD 80 (Gros and Torelli 2010: 385). 4.2.4 Basilica Figure 64: The forum of Trajan (Rome). 4.3 Spectacle buildings 4.3.1 Theatres Figure 65: The basilicae of the north-western provinces. Figure 66: The Silchester bronze eagle (Durham and Fulford 2013: Illus. I). Figure 67: Typology of spectacle buildings (Goodman 2007: 88). Figure 68: The spectacle buildings of the self-governing cities of Narbonensis. Figure 69: The theatres and amphitheatres of the self-governing cities of Gaul and Germania Inferior. 4.3.2 Amphitheatres Figure 70: The spectacle buildings of Britain. Table 5: Sizes of cities (c. AD 200) and amphitheatres of the Roman West (Golvin 1988: 284-288). 4.3.3 Circus Figure 71: The relationship between the estimated empirical arena’s surfaces and a theoretical normal distribution. The correlation coefficient is R=0.97. Figure 72: Scatterplot showing the arena surface’s (as indicated by Golvin) against city size. Figure 73: Scatterplot showing the amphitheatre’s seating surface capacity against city size. 4.3.4 Urban location Figure 74: The distribution of circuses. 4.4 How large were self-governing cities? Figure 75: Left: Excavations at the former County Hospital site, south-western corner of Dorchester (Holbrook 2015: 102). Right: Reconstruction of the north-east corner of the city of Vieux (Vipard 2002: 198). Figure 76: Box plot for comparing the sizes (in hectares, on the horizontal axis) of self-governing cities in different provinces. The scores are sorted into four equal-sized groups, that is 25% of all scores are placed in each group. The middle ‘box’ rep Figure 77: Size of the self-governing cities of the Western Alps. Figure 78: Size of the self-governing cities of Narbonensis. Figure 79: Size of the self-governing cities of Aquitania. Figure 80: Size of the self-governing cities of Lugdunensis and Belgica. Figure 81: The city sizes of Aquitania, Lugdunensis, and Belgica compared. 4.5 Understanding temporal rhythms: dating the erection of public buildings in the self-governing cities Figure 82: Size of the self-governing cities of Britannia. Figure 83: Size of the self-governing cities of the north-western provinces. Figure 84: Rhythms of monumentalisation in Narbonensis and Aquitania. Table 6: Dating of monuments (per province) from 25 BC to AD 325. Figure 85: Rhythms of monumentalisation in Lugdunensis, Belgica, and south-east Britain. Figure 86: Rhythms of monumentalisation in Germania Inferior, and northern and eastern Britannia. Figure 87: Rhythms of monumentalisation in the Roman Western Alps. 4.6 The distribution of self-governing cities Figure 88: City-sizes: five main classes. Figure 89: Rank-size analysis of the administrative cities of north-western provinces. Figure 90: Scatterplot showing a very weak relationship between city size and the area of the civitas it administers. Figure 91: The horrea of Vienne (in orange) (Adjajd 2014: 143). Figure 92: The horrea of Cologne (Coquelet 2011: 166). Table 3: City status and defensive stone walls. Table 4: Arches in the north-western provinces. Table 5: Sizes of cities (c. AD 200) and amphitheatres of the Roman West (Golvin 1988: 284-288). Table 6: Dating of monuments (per province) from 25 BC to AD 325. Chapter 5 The Secondary Agglomerations of Gaul 5.1 The distribution of secondary agglomerations in Narbonensis Figure 93: The self-governing cities of the Roman Empire. Figure 94: This map shows how far a secondary agglomeration lies from the closest self-governing cities (black dot). Red dots represent agglomerations that lie distant from them; blue dots those which lie closer to them. 5.1.1 The civitas of the Allobroges (Vienne) Figure 95: The estimated size of the secondary agglomerations in Gaul and Germania Inferior. Figure 96: The areas selected for the analysis of the settlement system in the North-Western provinces. Figure 97: The case studies selected for the analysis of settlement hierarchies in Narbonensis. Figure 98: The agglomerations of the civitas of the Allobroges. Figure 100: The monumentality of the agglomerations in the civitas of the Allobroges. Figure 99: The size of the agglomerations in the civitas of the Allobroges. Figure 101: The agglomerations south of Vienne (Béal 2005: 16). Figure 102: The site of Andance-Andacette and the location of archaeological remains (Béal 2005: 20). Figure 103: The vici of the civitas of the Allobroges. Figure 104: The ‘arc of Campanus’ (Leveau et al. 2007: 281). 5.1.2 The agglomerations in Vaucluse (Apta, Arausio, Avennio, Cabellio, Carpentorate and Vasio) 5.1.3 The agglomerations in south-eastern Gaul (Fréjus, Antibes, Vence, Briançonnet) Figure 105: The agglomerations in Vaucluse (Broise 1984: 268). Table 7: The rural agglomerations in Vaucluse (Broise 1984: 271). Figure 106: The geography of the civitates of Fréjus, Antibes, Vence, and Briançonnet (Bertoncello and Lautier 2013: 196). Figure 107: The proportion of nucleated agglomerations (green) and dispersed ones (blue) in south-eastern Gaul (Bertoncello and Lautier 2013: 205). 5.1.4 The civitas of Nîmes Figure 108: The distribution of different types of settlements in south-eastern Gaul. Pink dots (villas) are concentrated in the western part of the case-study area, which corresponds to the territory of Fréjus; to the east, the nucleated settlements (gre Figure 109: The settlement system in Eastern Languedoc in the 1st century BC (Favory et al. 2009: 162). Figure 110: The settlement system in Eastern Languedoc in 1st century AD (Favory et al. 2009: 165). Figure 111: Hierarchical classification of the agglomerations of Nîmes (Garmy 2012: 294). Figure 112: The agglomerations of Languedoc-Roussillon (black dots) and the surviving oppida (white dots) (Bermond et al. 2012: 98). Figure 113: The rural settlement of Languedoc-Roussillon. Villas (large squares) and other establishments (small squares). (Bermond et al. 2012: 94) 5.1.5 The civitas of Luteva Figure 114: The agglomeration of Mèze, Hérault (Pellecuer 2005: 103). Introduction 5.2 The distribution of secondary agglomerations in Aquitania 5.2.1 The Gironde Figure 115: Case studies selected for the analysis of settlement systems in Aquitania. 5.2.2 The western Pyrenees Figure 116: The public buildings in the Gironde. Figure 117: The main rural establishments in part of the civitas of the Tarbelli. Red circles: non-villa landscape. Green circles: landscape filled with villas (red dots) and temporary structures (black triangles) (Réchin et al. 2013: 225). Figure 118: Left: the distribution of the salt from Salies-de-Béarn (Réchin 2014: 380). Right: the distribution of wine from Bigorre and of the possible production sites (Réchin 2014: 380 and 385). Figure 119: The distribution of handmade pottery (Réchin 2014: 387). Figure 120: The public buildings within the civitas of the Tarbelli. 5.2.3 The civitas of the Pictones Figure 121: The distribution and size of the agglomerations within the civitas of the Pictones. Figure 122: Street grids and public squares in the agglomerations of the Pictones. Figure 123: The public buildings in the agglomerations of the Pictones. 5.2.4 The civitas of the Bituriges Cubi Figure 124: The oppida of the Bituriges Cubi (Batardy 2004: 256) Figure 125: The settlement system of the civitas of the Bituriges (2nd century AD). Figure 126: The monuments within the agglomerations of the Bituriges Cubi. Figure 127: The Champagne Berrichonne (Maussion 2004: 399). Figure 128: Rural sites situated within a radius of 5 km from an agglomeration or road station. Left: the totality of rural establishments (Maussion 2003: 162). Right: isolated farms (Maussion 2003: 163). 5.2.5 The distribution of secondary agglomerations in Belgica Figure 129: Villas situated in a radius of 5 km from an agglomeration or road station (Maussion 2003: 164). Figure 130: Viticulture in temperate Gaul. Black dots: wine-making establishments; grey dots: traces of plantation (Brun 2011: 2). Figure 131: The agglomerations of western Belgica. Figure 132: Street grids and fora in the agglomerations of western Belgica. Figure 133: The monuments in the agglomerations of north-western Belgica. 5.3 An overview of the settlement systems within the Gaulish provinces Table 8: The number and type of settlements in the Gaulish provinces and western Alps. Figure 134: Map showing the self-governing cities and secondary agglomerations of Gaul and Western Alps. Figure 135: Map showing how the majority of villas fall within the 15 km radius of either self-governing cities and secondary agglomerations. Figure 136: The layout of secondary agglomerations and the distribution of the ascertained public squares and street grids. Figure 137: The monumentality of secondary settlements in Gaul. Distribution of the ascertained i. religious buildings (temples and sanctuaries), ii. spectacle buildings, iii. baths. Figure 138: The basilicae in the secondary agglomerations. Figure 139: Two different models of settlement hierarchy. In order to make the comparison between the two series of value meaningful, they have been normalised (that is standardized) and constrained between [0, 1]). Figure 140: Two ideal-types of settlement hierarchy. Figure 141: Rank-size analysis of the whole ‘urban’ system of Gaul. Figure 142: The settlement system of Gaul (and Germania Inferior) analysed through a weighted Thiessen polygon analysis. Polygons are defined by settlement sizes and their Euclidean inter-distances. The map clearly shows that several cities extended their Table 7: The rural agglomerations in Vaucluse (Broise 1984: 271). Table 8: The number and type of settlements in the Gaulish provinces and western Alps. Chapter 6 The Secondary Agglomerations of Germania Inferior and Britannia Introduction 6.1 Germania Inferior Table 9: The number and type of settlements in Britannia and Germania Inferior. Figure 143: The self-governing cities, secondary agglomerations and garrison settlements of Britain and Germania Inferior. Figure 144: The landscape of Germania Inferior (Roymans and Heeren 2004: 23). Figure 145: The variation between the stable-houses of Roman times excavated at Oss (Roymans and Heeren 2004: 24). Figure 146: The settlement system in Germania Inferior. Figure 147: Street grids in the agglomerations of Germania Inferior. Figure 148: The monuments in the agglomerations of Germania Inferior. Figure 149: The size of the agglomerations in Germania Inferior. 6.2 Eastern Yorkshire Figure 150: The major topographical features of eastern Yorkshire (Halkon 2013: 44). Figure 151: The agglomerations of Shiptonthorpe (left) and Hayton (right) based on crop marks (Halkon 2013: 139 and 141). Figure 152: Temporal changes in the frequency of settlement in north-eastern England. Figure 153: Types of changes in farming settlements in north-eastern England. Figure 154: Settlement development and dynamics of change in the North East. Figure 155: The increased use of corn-drying ovens through time in north-eastern England. Figure 156: The increased farming of cattle and pig over sheep in north-eastern England. 6.3 An overview of the settlement systems of Germania Inferior and Britannia Figure 157: Map showing the distribution of villas and buffers of 15 km radius around the self-governing cities and secondary agglomerations of Britannia and Germania Inferior. Figure 158: The secondary agglomerations of Britannia and Germania Inferior in which evidence of considerably large artisanal/industrial productions has been discovered. Figure 159: Box plot comparing the size of the secondary settlements (i.e. garrison settlements are excluded) of the north-western provinces. Figure 160: The size of secondary agglomerations of Britannia and Germania Inferior. Figure 161: The layout of secondary agglomerations and the distribution of the ascertained public squares and street grids. Figure 162: The monumentality of secondary settlements. Distribution of the ascertained i. religious buildings (temples and sanctuaries), ii. spectacle buildings, iii. baths. Figure 163: Rank-size analysis of the whole ‘urban’ system of Britannia Figure 164: The settlement system of Britannia analysed through a weighted Thiessen polygon analysis. Each polygon is defined by the distance between agglomerations and their size. Table 9: The number and type of settlements in Britannia and Germania Inferior. Conclusions Summary Appendix A A.1 Narbonensis A.2 Aquitania A.3 Belgica A.4 Lugdunensis A.5 Alpine provinces A.6 Germania inferior Appendix B B.1 Narbonensis B.2 Aquitania B.3 Belgica B.4 Lugdunensis B.5 Alpine provinces B.6 Germania inferior Appendix C C.1 Narbonensis C.2 Aquitania C.3 Belgica C.4 Lugdunensis C.5 Alpine provinces C.6 Germania inferior C.7 Britannia Bibliography Back cover