The Study of Ions and Salts in Chemistry

This book bridges the gap between food scientists and chemists by providing a practical foundation to ionic chemicals and salts. It stresses the link between structure at the atomic level and the symmetry and characteristics of ionic compounds, and it discusses the fundamental concepts of architecture and bonding in ionic compounds. This is an excellent resource for anyone interested in compound chemical and ionic characteristics. The book is especially useful for those who want to learn more about the chemistry of ionic compounds and salts, with a focus on their applications. Structure, kinetics, electrochemistry, thermodynamic characteristics, synthesis, and scientific studies of ions and salts are all covered in this book. Experimental and theoretical approaches for studying this data, as well as data collecting and processing methodologies, are discussed. This book is an important addition to the future of the chemistry discipline since it is the first serious debate on the transfer of these methodologies and techniques between the many application regimes. Cover Half Title The Study of Ions and Salts in Chemistry Copyright About the Author Table of Contents List of Figures List of Tables List of Abbreviations Preface 1. Introduction to Ions and Ionic Compounds Contents 1.1 Introduction 1.1.1. Octet Rule 1.1.2. Electron Dot Symbols in Periodic Table 1.2. Ions and the Periodic Table 1.2.1. Common Cations 1.2.2. Common Anions 1.2.3. Ions of Transition and Inner Transition Metals 1.3. Ionic Bonding 1.4. Practice Writing Correct Ionic Formulas 1.5. Naming Ions and Ionic Compounds 1.6. Polyatomic Ions 1.6.1. Abraham Lincoln and “Blue Mass” 1.6.2. Naming Polyatomic Ions 1.7. Properties and Formation of Ionic Compounds 1.8. Arrhenius Acids and Bases and Their Role in Salt Formation 1.9. Ions, Neurons, and Neuron Impulses 1.10. Chapter Summary References 2. Characteristics of Ions and Ionic Compounds Contents 2.1. Introduction 2.2. Isolated Ions 2.3. Dissolved Ions 2.4. Sizes of Ions 2.5. Properties Shared By Ionic Compounds 2.5.1. They Form Crystals 2.5.2. They Have High Boiling Points and High Melting Points 2.5.3. They’re Brittle and Hard 2.5.4. They Conduct Electricity When They Are Dissolved in Water 2.5.5. They’re Good Insulators 2.5.6. A Conventional Household Example of Ionic Compound 2.6. Physical Properties of Ionic Compounds 2.6.1. Melting Points 2.6.2. Shattering 2.6.3. Conductivity 2.6.4. Characteristics 2.7. Cations and Anions 2.7.1. Natural Occurrences 2.7.2. Related Technology 2.7.3. Detection of Ionizing Radiation 2.7.4. The Basics of Chemistry 2.7.5. Sub-Classes 2.7.6. Formation 2.7.6.1. Monatomic Ions 2.7.6.2. Polyatomic Ions 2.7.6.3. Ionization Potential 2.8. Ionic Bonding References 3. Ion Extraction and Ion Mobilities Contents 3.1. Introduction 3.1.1. Charge Flow in an External Electric Field 3.1.2. Future Directions 3.2. Ion Extraction Basics 3.2.1. Ion Exchange 3.2.2. Ion Flotation 3.2.3. Cloud Point Extraction 3.2.4. Precipitation 3.2.5. Membrane Filtration References 4. Fundamental Concepts of Ionic Liquids Contents 4.1. Introduction 4.2. Structure of Ionic Liquids 4.3. Properties Ionic Liquids 4.3.1. Properties of Ionic Liquids with Solvent Use 4.3.2. Purity Ionic Liquids 4.4. Different Generations of Ionic Liquids 4.4.1. First-Generation 4.4.2. Second Generation 4.4.3. Third Generation 4.5. Applications of Ionic Liquids 4.5.1. Catalytic Reactions 4.5.2. Stability of Nanocatalysts in an Ionic Liquid Medium 4.5.3. Solvent 4.5.4. Electrochemistry 4.6. Ionic Liquids for Supercapacitors 4.6.1. Double Layer Formed in Ionic Liquid 4.6.2. Ionic Liquids for the Use in Double-Layer Capacitors 4.6.3. Future Research Directions 4.6.4. Liquid-Liquid Extraction 4.7. Methods for the Synthesis of Ionic Liquids 4.7.1. Alkylation 4.7.2. Anion Exchange 4.7.3. Solvent-Free Synthesis 4.7.4. Synthesis of Chiral 4.7.5. Synthesis of Ionic Liquids with a Distinct Performance Reference 5. Chemistry of Salts and Aqueous Solutions Contents 5.1. Introduction 5.1.1. Acidic Salt 5.1.2. Alkali or Basic Salt 5.1.3. Mixed Salts 5.2. History of Salt 5.3. Properties of Salt 5.3.1. Color 5.3.2. Odor 5.3.3. Taste 5.3.4. Conductivity 5.3.5. Melting Point 5.4. Identification of Salts 5.5. Differentiation Between Acidic and Basic Salt 5.6. Salts In Aqueous Solutions 5.7. Salt–Water Systems in Modern Applications 5.8. Solution Models and Thermodynamic Databases 5.9. Data Sources and Experiments 5.10. Formation of Salt Hydrates and Double Salts 5.11. At Enhanced Temperatures the Properties of Salt Solutions 5.12. Summary References 6. Role of Salt in Public Health and Food Science Contents 6.1. Introduction 6.2. Salt in Food Manufacturing 6.3. Effects of Salt on Bacteria 6.4. Public Health Characteristics of Salt Intake 6.5. Salt Intake and Diet 6.6. Human Studies 6.7. Worldwide Initiatives to Decrease Salt Consumption 6.8. Labeling of Sodium Contents or Salt in Foods 6.9. Replacement or Reduction of Salt in Foods 6.10. Summary References 7. Use of Different Salt Compounds in Saline Agriculture Contents 7.1. Introduction 7.2. Insufficient Freshwater, Salt Contamination, and Soil Degradation 7.3. Soil Salinity 7.4. Soil And Water Availability 7.5. Saline Agriculture: An Opportunity for Saline Soils Use 7.6. Which Halophyte Crops Can We Use? 7.6.1. Food Yielding Halophytes 7.6.2. Oilseeds 7.6.3. Fuel Wood and Timber 7.6.4. Source of Chemicals 7.6.5. Ornamenta 7.6.6. Environmental Protection 7.7. Environmental and Economic Impact of Saline Agriculture 7.8. Assessing the Suitability of Saline Water for Crop Production 7.9. Environmental Aspects of Irrigation 7.10. Conclusion and Future Perspectives References 8. Use of Salts in the Pharmaceutical Industry Contents 8.1. Introduction 8.2. Drug Chemistry Considerations 8.2.1. API Functional Groups 8.2.2. pKa of the Drug 8.2.3. Lipophilicity 8.2.4. Hygroscopicity 8.2.5. Water of Hydration 8.2.6. Polymorphism 8.2.7. Chemical Stability 8.2.8. Solubility and Dissolution Rate 8.3. Pharmaceutical Considerations 8.3.1. Dosage Form Desired 8.3.1.1. A Liquids (Suspensions) 8.3.1.2. B Solutions 8.3.1.3. Creams/Ointments/Gels 8.3.1.4. Aerosols 8.3.2. Ease of Synthesis and Scale-Up 8.3.2.1. Flowability 8.3.2.2. Corrosiveness of Counterions 8.3.2.3. Compatibility with Excipients 8.3.3. Route of Administration 8.3.4. Controlled Release Dosage Forms 8.4. Pharmacokinetics (PK), Pharmacodynamics (PD), and Safety Considerations 8.4.1. Toxicological Consideration 8.4.2. Distribution and Clearance 8.4.3. Onset and Termination of Therapeutic Effects 8.4.4. Counteracting Side Effects 8.4.5. Drug Interactions 8.5. Economic Considerations 8.6. Screening, Preparation, and Characterization of Salts 8.7. Summary References Index Cover back