The State of the Art (Janua Linguarum. Series Minor)

## PREFACE 1 This is a critical review of current American linguistic theory, directed principally-indeed, almost but not quite exclusivelytowards the views of Noam Chomsky. I think those views are largely in error; but they are too powerful merely to be shrugged aside. It is necessary to meet Chomsky on his own ground. When we do this, we discover that, even if he is wrong, his particular pattern of error tells us some things about language that were formerly unknown or obscure. Two topics that might be expected to loom large in a discussion of this sort in fact will not. Little will be said about syntactic transformations, and nothing about Chomskyan-Hallean 'phonology'. The former are helping us to discover subtle facts about various languages, and are surely here to stay. 2 The latter is, in my opinion, completely bankrupt, but is under adequate debate elsewhere. 3 'The preparation of this essay was supported by a grant from the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research, made in 1965 and renewed in the Spring of 1966. I am deeply indebted. Because of the forceful and perhaps unpopular position I take here, I must be unusually emphatic in absolving the Foundation of any responsibility for the views expressed. 2 For example, Lees (1960), or-especially pleasing to me-Lakoff (1965). The facts being uncovered by research of this sort are reminiscent of some of those turned up by the genius of Whorf, such as his discovery of the common feature of meaning of those English verbs that allow the formation of another verb by the prefixation of un-: wind: unwind, fasten: unfasten, and so on (Whorf cl936). In the bulk of the transformationalist literature (see Dingwall 1965) the positive factual content is sparse, but it is there, and valuable. Like the smile on the Cheshire cat, the rest can disappear, with no loss. This verbosity in technicalese is an old story in our field. 3 The distinctive feature approach was developed by Trubetzkoy, Jakobson ## PREFACE The historical background presented in §1 may be of some interest in its own right, but that is not why it is included. It is included because I do not believe either Chomsky's views or my own can be fully understood except in their historical setting. November 1966 CHARLES F. HOCKETT and others of the Prague school; see TCLP (1929-39) passim and Vachek 1964. Joos (1948 fns. 6, 8) criticized it in the light of the initial evidence from sound spectrography. Jakobson, Fant, and Halle (1952) was ostensibly based on spectrography; see reviews by Chao (1954) and Garvin (1953). Jakobson and Halle (1956) incorporated no change, despite the cogent criticisms from various quarters; it received what seems to me to be a definitive review by Joos (1957a). Meanwhile, a strange new slant towards phonology began to take shape, represented by Chomsky, Halle, and Lukoff (1956); a later metamorphosis of this (Halle 1962), and Chomsky's sections on phonology in some of his articles, elicited Householder's loud protest (1965). Any difference between Householder's views and my own are subliminal compared to our joint disapproval of the assumptions, the techniques, and the manner of Chomskyan •phonology'; the Chomsky and Halle reply (1965) to Householder adds nothing, but Householder's brief rejoinder (1966) does. For other criticism, see Hockett (1965 fn. 39) and the first parts of Lamb (1966). CONTENTS PREFACE 1. THE BACKGROUND A survey of the development of linguistic theory, largely in the United States, from about 1900 up to about 1950 2. THE CHOMSKYAN ORIENTATION A presentation of Chomsky's theories in capsule form 3. WELL-DEFINED AND ILL-DEFINED A development of the necessary background for understanding what seems to be Chomsky's central assumption about language 4. THE STATUS OF LANGUAGES An outline of the alternative assumptions about language available within the scheme of §3 5. THE CHOMSKYAN VIEW DISSECTED . An examination of his principal proposals in the light of these alternatives ## WHAT DO WE KNOW? A presentation of what the writer believes is the correct alternative REFERENCES "In every science it is demanded that the investigator understand the method of science. He must see the reasons for its existence, be aware of its limitations, and be able to follow it, through all difficulties and seemingly endless amassments of material, consistently to a conclusion, good or bad. In all sciences there are many who can do this; it requires, at this day, no gift of genius. In the sciences that deal with man, however, there is a second demand, much harder to fulfil, to wit, that the scholar divest himself (for the time being, at least) of all the prejudices and preconceptions of his person, of his social group, or even of all mankind. So rare is this ability that it has grown commonplace to say that our social sciences are merely systematized expositions of tribal belief." LEONARD BLOOMFIELD (1922b) 'But not the latter part of Bloomfield's chapter (1933 pp. 365ff.); see below in the present essay, and Hockett (1965 §6; 1966, §4). The theory of sound change had to remain largely phenomenological until spectrography revealed to us how wildly variable are the actual sounds of speech. Only then could it be reformulated as I have in the sources referred to. '"First in Pike (1943); this was one of the principal germs from which his tagmemic theory has grown. Pike (1966) is a thorough bibliographical survey.

Das Lehrbuch vermittelt in anwendungsorientierter Form Begriffe und Methoden der Marktforschung. Das Buch ist aufgeteilt in drei Teile: Methodische Grundlagen, praktische Anwendungsfelder und quantitative Analysen im Bereich der Marktforschung.
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Preface Contents 1. The Background 2. The Chomskyan Orientation 3. Well-Defined And Ill-Defined 4. The Status Of Languages 5. The Chomskyan View Dissected 6. What Do We Know? References