The Soils of Aotearoa New Zealand

This book offers an introduction to the soils of Aotearoa New Zealand, structured according to the New Zealand soil classification system. Starting with an overview of the importance and distribution of New Zealand soils, it subsequently provides essential information on each of the 15 New Zealand soil orders in separate chapters. Each chapter, illustrated with diagrams and photographs in colour, includes a summary of the main features of the soils in the order, their genesis and relationships with landscapes, their key properties including examples of physical and chemical characteristics, and their classification, use, and management. The book then features a chapter on soils in the Ross Sea region of Antarctica and concludes by considering New Zealand soils in a global context, soil-formation pathways, and methods used in New Zealand to evaluate soils and assist in land-management decisions. Information about how to access detailed information via links to the Manaaki Whenua Landcare Research website is also included. Preface Contents About the Authors 1 Introduction Abstract 1.1 Importance, Diversity, and Development, of New Zealand Soils 1.2 The Environmental (Soil-Forming) Factors that Influence New Zealand Soil Development 1.2.1 Geology, Soil Parent Materials, and Topography of New Zealand 1.2.2 New Zealand’s Climate 1.2.3 Organisms 1.2.4 Time 1.3 The Soil Profile and Key Soil Properties 1.3.1 The Definition of Soil 1.3.2 The Soil Profile 1.3.3 Key Soil Properties 1.4 New Zealand Soil Classification 1.4.1 Introduction 1.4.2 Overview of the New Zealand Soil Orders 1.4.3 Key to New Zealand Soil Orders 1.5 Soils in the Landscape Further Reading 2 Allophanic Soils Abstract 2.1 Important Features of Allophanic Soils 2.1.1 Concept and Key Features of the Soil Order 2.1.2 Areas of Occurrence 2.1.3 Variation Within the Allophanic Soil Order 2.1.4 Origin of the Soil Order Name 2.2 Soil Profile Genesis 2.2.1 Soil Profile Formation 2.2.2 Formation of Allophane 2.3 Soil-Landscape Relationships 2.3.1 Overview 2.3.2 Allophanic Soils in Proximity to Andesitic Source Volcanoes: The Taranaki Ring Plain and Areas South of Tongariro 2.3.3 The Waikato-Bay of Plenty Region 2.3.4 Allophanic Soil Pattern on the Alluvial Fans and Plains of the Waikato Basin and Hauraki Area 2.3.5 Southland Occurrences of Allophanic Soil Materials 2.4 Key Soil Properties 2.4.1 Soil Composition 2.4.2 Physical Properties 2.4.3 Chemical Properties 2.4.4 Biological Properties 2.5 Distinguishing Between Allophanic Soils and Related Soil Orders 2.6 Correlation with Other Classification Systems 2.7 Use and Management of Allophanic Soils 2.7.1 Productive Use 2.7.2 Erosion Risk 2.7.3 Geotechnical Engineering Further Reading 3 Anthropic Soils Abstract 3.1 Important Features of Anthropic Soils 3.1.1 Concept and Key Features of the Soil Order 3.1.2 Areas of Occurrence 3.1.3 Variation Within the Anthropic Soil Order 3.1.4 Origin of the Soil Order Name 3.2 Soil Profile Genesis and Landscape Relationships 3.3 Key Soil Properties 3.3.1 Introduction 3.3.2 Humping and Hollowing 3.3.3 Flipping 3.3.4 Soil as a Mineable Resource 3.3.5 Soil Relocation from Cromwell Gorge 3.3.6 Urban Anthropic Soils 3.3.7 Māori Impacts on Soils: Middens, Gardens, Excavations, and Fortified Pā Sites 3.3.8 Gold Dredging Sites 3.3.9 Sports Fields 3.4 Distinguishing Between Anthropic Soils and Related Soil Orders 3.5 Correlation with Other Classification Systems 3.6 Key Soil Data 3.7 Use and Management of Anthropic Soils 3.7.1 Introduction 3.7.2 Land Restoration Following Mining or Landfilling 3.7.3 Moving Soil Materials and Ecosystems Further Reading 4 Brown Soils Abstract 4.1 Important Features of Brown Soils 4.1.1 Concept and Key Features of the Soil Order 4.1.2 Areas of Occurrence 4.1.3 Variation Within the Brown Soil Order 4.1.4 Origin of the Soil Order Name 4.2 Soil Profile Genesis 4.3 Soil-Landscape Relationships 4.3.1 Introduction 4.3.2 The Greywacke Hill and Mountain Country 4.3.3 The Mudstone Hill Country 4.3.4 Otago Schist Landscapes 4.3.5 Contrasting Terrains in Canterbury and Otago 4.3.6 Southland Plains, Terraces, Downlands, and Rolling Hills 4.4 Key Soil Properties 4.4.1 Soil Composition 4.4.2 Physical Properties 4.4.3 Chemical Properties 4.4.4 Biological Properties 4.5 Distinguishing Between Brown Soils and Related Soil Orders 4.6 Correlation with Other Classification Systems 4.7 Use and Management of Brown Soils 4.7.1 Introduction 4.7.2 Soil Fertility 4.7.3 Hill Country Erosion Further Reading 5 Gley Soils Abstract 5.1 Important Features of Gley Soils 5.1.1 Concept and Key Features of the Soil Order 5.1.2 Areas of Occurrence 5.1.3 Variation Within the Gley Soil Order 5.1.4 Origin of the Soil Order Name 5.2 Soil Profile Genesis 5.3 Soil-Landscape Relationships 5.4 Key Soil Properties 5.4.1 Soil Composition 5.4.2 Physical Properties 5.4.3 Chemical Properties 5.4.4 Biological Properties 5.5 Distinguishing Between Gley Soils and Related Soil Orders 5.6 Correlation with Other Classification Systems 5.7 Use and Management of Gley Soils 5.7.1 Introduction 5.7.2 Soil Drainage Classes 5.7.3 Soil Drainage Design and Management 5.7.4 Soil Fertility 5.7.5 The Value of Wetlands—Their Maintenance and Enhancement Further Reading 6 Granular Soils Abstract 6.1 Important Features of Granular Soils 6.1.1 Concept and Key Features of the Soil Order 6.1.2 Areas of Occurrence 6.1.3 Variation Within the Granular Soil Order 6.1.4 Origin of the Soil Order Name 6.2 Soil Profile Genesis 6.3 Soil-Landscape Relationships 6.4 Key Soil Properties 6.4.1 Soil Composition 6.4.2 Physical Properties 6.4.3 Chemical Properties 6.4.4 Biological Properties 6.5 Distinguishing Between Granular Soils and Related Soil Orders 6.6 Correlation with Other Soil Classification Systems 6.7 Use and Management of Granular Soils 6.7.1 Uses for Granular Soils 6.7.2 Urban and Peri-urban Development 6.7.3 Soil Water Management 6.7.4 Soil Erosion 6.7.5 Sustainable Soil and Environmental Management Further Reading 7 Melanic Soils Abstract 7.1 Important Features of Melanic Soils 7.1.1 Concept and Key Features of the Soil Order 7.1.2 Areas of Occurrence 7.1.3 Variation Within the Melanic Soil Order 7.1.4 Origin of Soil Order Name 7.2 Soil Profile Genesis 7.3 Soil-Landscape Relationships 7.3.1 Introduction 7.3.2 Melanic Soils Associated with Limestone Terrain: Waipara and Oamaru 7.3.3 Melanic Soils in Hilly Volcanic Terrain: Otago and Banks Peninsula 7.3.4 The Waiareka Loess Gap 7.3.5 Southland Tuffaceous Greywacke 7.3.6 Nelson and Otago-Southland Dunite/Serpentinite 7.4 Key Soil Properties 7.4.1 Soil Composition 7.4.2 Physical Properties 7.4.3 Chemical Properties 7.4.4 Biological Properties 7.5 Distinguishing Between Melanic Soils and Related Soil Orders 7.6 Correlation with Other Classification Systems 7.7 Use and Management of Melanic Soils Further Reading 8 Organic Soils Abstract 8.1 Important Features of Organic Soils 8.1.1 Concept and Key Features of the Soil Order 8.1.2 Areas of Occurrence 8.1.3 Variation Within the Organic Soil Order 8.1.4 Origin of Soil Order Name 8.2 Soil Profile Genesis 8.3 Soil-Landscape Relationships 8.3.1 Introduction 8.3.2 Organic Soils in the Waikato Lowlands 8.3.3 The Waihola-Waipori Wetland system—a Glimpse of the Taieri Plain in Pre-Human Times 8.3.4 Southern Sphagnum Wetlands of the Lammerlaw Range, East Otago 8.3.5 Pakihi Environments on the West Coast of the South Island 8.4 Key Soil Properties 8.4.1 Introduction 8.4.2 Soil Composition 8.4.3 Physical Properties 8.4.4 Chemical Properties 8.4.5 Biological Properties 8.5 Distinguishing Between Organic Soils and Related Soil Orders 8.6 Correlation with Other Classification Systems 8.7 Use and Management of Organic Soils 8.7.1 Introduction 8.7.2 Management of Organic Soils for Conservation, Biodiversity Protection, Carbon Sequestration, and Catchment Hydrological Protection 8.7.3 Management of Organic Soils for Pastoral Farming and Cropping 8.7.4 Management of Infrastructure on Organic Soils Further Reading 9 Oxidic Soils Abstract 9.1 Important Features of Oxidic Soils 9.1.1 Concept and Key Features of the Soil Order 9.1.2 Areas of Occurrence 9.1.3 Variation Within the Oxidic Soil Order 9.1.4 Origin of the Soil Order Name 9.2 Soil Profile Genesis 9.3 Soil-Landscape Relationships 9.4 Key Soil Properties 9.4.1 Soil Composition 9.4.2 Physical Properties 9.4.3 Chemical Properties 9.4.4 Biological Properties 9.5 Distinguishing Between Oxidic Soils and Related Soil Orders 9.6 Correlation with Other Classification Systems 9.7 Use and Management of Oxidic Soils Further Reading 10 Pallic Soils Abstract 10.1 Important Features of Pallic Soils 10.1.1 Concept and Key Features of the Soil Order 10.1.2 Areas of Occurrence 10.1.3 Variation Within the Pallic Soil Order 10.1.4 Origin of the Soil Order Name 10.2 Soil Profile Genesis 10.3 Soil-Landscape Relationships 10.3.1 Overview 10.3.2 Rangitikei Loess Chronosequence 10.3.3 Claremont Catena 10.4 Key Soil Properties 10.4.1 Soil Composition 10.4.2 Physical Properties 10.4.3 Chemical Properties 10.4.4 Biological Properties 10.5 Distinguishing Between Pallic Soils and Related Soil Orders 10.6 Correlation with Other Classification Systems 10.7 Use and Management of Pallic Soils 10.7.1 Uses for Pallic Soils 10.7.2 Soil Water Management 10.7.3 Soil Erosion 10.7.4 Contaminant Behaviour Further Reading 11 Podzol Soils Abstract 11.1 Important Features of Podzol Soils 11.1.1 Concept and Key Features of the Soil Order 11.1.2 Areas of Occurrence 11.1.3 Variation Within the Podzol Soil Order 11.1.4 Origin of the Soil Order Name 11.2 Soil Profile Genesis 11.3 Soil-Landscape Relationships 11.3.1 Overview 11.3.2 The Egg-Cup Podzol Soils of Northland 11.3.3 Franz Josef Chronosequence 11.4 Key Soil Properties 11.4.1 Soil Composition 11.4.2 Physical Properties 11.4.3 Chemical Properties 11.4.4 Biological Properties 11.5 Distinguishing Between Podzol Soils and Related Soil Orders 11.6 Correlation with Other Classification Systems 11.7 Use and Management of Podzol Soils Further Reading 12 Pumice Soils Abstract 12.1 Important Features of Pumice Soils 12.1.1 Concept and Key Features of the Soil Order 12.1.2 Areas of Occurrence 12.1.3 Variation within the Pumice Soil order 12.1.4 Origin of Soil Order Name 12.2 Soil Profile Genesis 12.2.1 Introduction 12.2.2 Magmatic Origins of Rhyolitic Pumice 12.2.3 Taupo Eruption and Its Products 12.2.4 Kaharoa Eruption and Its Products 12.2.5 The Development of Pumice Soils 12.3 Soil-Landscape Relationships 12.3.1 Forming and Modifying Landscapes and Changes in Pumice Soils Over Distance 12.3.2 Tephrostratigraphy and Paleopedology 12.3.3 Tephra Reworking 12.4 Key Soil Properties 12.4.1 Soil Composition 12.4.2 Physical Properties 12.4.3 Chemical Properties 12.4.4 Biological Properties 12.5 Distinguishing Between Pumice Soils and Related Soil Orders 12.6 Correlation with Other Classification Systems 12.7 Use and Management of Pumice Soils 12.7.1 Introduction 12.7.2 Chemical Limitations Including Cobalt Deficiency 12.7.3 Establishment of Plantation Forestry Including Pinus radiata 12.7.4 Soil Erosion 12.7.5 Developments on Pumice Soils in the Twenty-First Century Further Reading 13 Raw Soils Abstract 13.1 Important Features of Raw Soils 13.1.1 Concept and Key Features of the Soil Order 13.1.2 Areas of Occurrence 13.1.3 Variation Within the Raw Soil Order 13.1.4 Origin of Soil Order Name 13.2 Soil Profile Genesis 13.3 Soil-Landscape Relationships 13.4 Key Soil Properties 13.5 Distinguishing Between Raw Soils and Related Soil Orders 13.6 Correlation with Other Classification Systems 13.7 Use and Management of Raw Soils Further Reading 14 Recent Soils Abstract 14.1 Important Features of Recent Soils 14.1.1 Concept and Key Features of the Soil Order 14.1.2 Areas of Occurrence 14.1.3 Variation Within the Recent Soil Order 14.1.4 Origin of the Soil Order Name 14.2 Soil Profile Genesis 14.3 Soil-Landscape Relationships 14.3.1 High Soil Variability in Alluvial Flood Plain Soils 14.3.2 Soil Variability in Soft Rock Hill Country 14.4 Key Soil Properties 14.4.1 Soil Composition 14.4.2 Physical Properties 14.4.3 Chemical Properties 14.4.4 Biological Properties 14.5 Distinguishing Between Recent Soils and Related Soil Orders 14.6 Correlation with Other Classification Systems 14.7 Use and Management of Recent Soils Further Reading 15 Semiarid Soils Abstract 15.1 Important Features of Semiarid Soils 15.1.1 Concept and Key Features of the Soil Order 15.1.2 Areas of Occurrence 15.1.3 Variation Within the Semiarid Soil Order 15.1.4 Origin of the Soil Order Name 15.2 Soil Profile Genesis 15.2.1 Introduction 15.2.2 Argillic Horizon Development 15.2.3 Salts, Sodium, and the Origin of Salinity and Sodicity 15.3 Soil-Landscape Relationships 15.4 Key Soil Properties 15.4.1 Soil Composition 15.4.2 Physical Properties 15.4.3 Chemical Properties 15.4.4 Biological Properties 15.5 Distinguishing Between Semiarid Soils and Related Soil Orders 15.6 Correlation with Other Classification Systems 15.7 Use and Management of Semiarid Soils 15.7.1 Introduction 15.7.2 Soil Management Considerations 15.7.3 Irrigation History and Management 15.7.4 Soil Erosion Further Reading 16 Ultic Soils Abstract 16.1 Important Features of Ultic Soils 16.1.1 Concept and Key Features of the Soil Order 16.1.2 Areas of Occurrence 16.1.3 Variation Within the Ultic Soil Order 16.1.4 Origin of Soil Order Name 16.2 Soil Profile Genesis 16.3 Soil-Landscape Relationships 16.3.1 Introduction 16.3.2 Ultic Soils in Auckland and Northland 16.3.3 Ultic Soils in the Northern Waikato Region Including the Special Case of the Kainui Soil 16.3.4 Origin of Red Weathering 16.4 Key Soil Properties 16.4.1 Soil Composition 16.4.2 Physical Properties 16.4.3 Chemical Properties 16.4.4 Biological Properties 16.5 Distinguishing Between Ultic Soils and Related Soil Orders 16.6 Correlation with Other Classification Systems 16.7 Use and Management of Ultic Soils Further Reading 17 Soils in the Ross Sea Region of Antarctica Abstract 17.1 Important Features of Antarctic Soils 17.1.1 Concept and Key Features of Antarctic Soils 17.1.2 Areas of Occurrence 17.1.3 Variation Within Antarctic Soils 17.1.4 Origin of the Soil Name 17.2 Soil Profile Genesis 17.3 Soil-Landscape Relationships 17.3.1 Overview 17.3.2 Antarctic Coastal Margins 17.3.3 The McMurdo Dry Valleys 17.3.4 Soils on the Margins of the Polar Plateau 17.3.5 Soils and Meteorites 17.4 Key Soil Properties 17.4.1 Soil Composition 17.4.2 Physical Properties 17.4.3 Chemical Properties 17.4.4 Biological Properties 17.5 Use and Management of Antarctic Soils Further Reading 18 Conclusion: Global Context, Formation Pathways, Mapping, and Assessment of the Soils of Aotearoa New Zealand Abstract 18.1 Introduction 18.2 New Zealand Soils in a Global Context 18.2.1 Introduction 18.2.2 Soil Diversity 18.2.3 Global Relatives of New Zealand Soils 18.2.4 Soil Organic Matter 18.3 Pathways of Soil Formation in New Zealand 18.4 Soil and Land Evaluation in New Zealand 18.4.1 Introduction 18.4.2 Traditional Knowledge Derived from Local Experience 18.4.3 Soil Maps and Associated Information 18.4.4 New Zealand Land Resource Inventory and Land Use Capability Classifications 18.4.5 Land Use Suitability 18.4.6 Soil Versatility 18.4.7 Soil Vulnerability 18.4.8 Soil Quality 18.4.9 Visual Soil Assessment 18.4.10 Soil Stocks, Soil Natural Capital, Soil Functions, and Ecosystem Services 18.4.11 Assessment of Soils of High Value for (Potential) Food Production 18.4.12 Soil Security—The Future of Land Evaluation? 18.5 Concluding Comments: Aotearoa New Zealand Soils—A National Taonga and Our Role in Kaitiakitanga Further Reading Appendix A Appendix B Index