The Senses: A Comprehensive Reference, Six-Volume Set, Volume 1-6

Cover Page......Page 1 Title Page......Page 3 ISBN 0126394822......Page 5 EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD......Page 6 Volume Editors......Page 7 Volume 2 Vision II......Page 10 Volume 3 Audition......Page 11 Volume 4 Olfaction & Taste......Page 12 Volume 5 Pain......Page 13 Volume 6 Somatosensation......Page 14 Contents......Page 8 Contents......Page 651 Contents......Page 1024 Contents......Page 1941 Contents......Page 2836 Contents......Page 3859 Contributors to All Volumes......Page 15 Volume 1 - Vision I......Page 4 Introduction to Volumes 1 and 2......Page 34 Conceptual Foundations......Page 36 The Compression of Information......Page 37 Seeing Objects in Space......Page 38 The Experimental Problem: Efficient Specification of Stimulus Variables......Page 40 Information Theory and Prior Probability......Page 41 Introduction......Page 44 General Constraints......Page 45 Optical Constraints......Page 46 Lenses: Multiple Protein Types and Gene Sharing......Page 47 Capturing Photons: The Opsin/Retinal Solution......Page 48 Developmental Evidence about Eye Evolution......Page 50 Developmental Evidence about Eye Evolution......Page 51 Functional Evidence about Eye Evolution......Page 53 Other Solutions to Capturing Photons......Page 54 How Did Eyes Evolve?......Page 55 References......Page 56 Further Reading......Page 57 Introduction......Page 60 Size and Information Capacity......Page 61 The Ambient Light Environment and Light Adaptation......Page 62 Describing and Comparing Optical Structure of Avian Eyes......Page 63 Eye size......Page 64 Amphibious habits and optical design......Page 65 The Kiwi: Regressive Evolution of a Bird Eye......Page 66 Describing Visual Fields......Page 67 Difficulties in estimating visual fields and binocular overlap......Page 69 Type 1 fields......Page 70 The Function of Binocularity......Page 71 Binocularity and optic flow fields......Page 75 Binocular vision and nocturnality......Page 76 Photopigments and Photoreceptors......Page 77 Oil Droplets......Page 78 Variation in oil droplet pigmentation......Page 79 Variation of Receptor Spectral Sensitivities and Densities......Page 80 Double Cones and Avian Luminance......Page 81 Single Cones and Tetrachromacy......Page 82 References......Page 83 Further Reading......Page 87 Vision in Fish......Page 88 Evolutionary Origin of Visual Pigments......Page 89 Lamprey......Page 90 Holosteans......Page 91 Lungfish and Coelacanth......Page 92 Multiple Opsins......Page 93 Rh2 (Middle-Wave Green-Sensitive) Opsin Duplication......Page 94 SWS2 (Short-Wave Blue/Violet-Sensitive) Opsin Duplication......Page 98 SWS1 (Short-Wave Violet/Ultraviolet-Sensitive) Opsin Duplication......Page 99 LWS (Long- to Middle-Wave Red/Green-Sensitive) Opsin Duplication......Page 101 Complex Opsin Expression/Cellular Trajectories......Page 102 Short-Wavelength Shifts: Salmonids and the Lingcod......Page 103 Long-Wavelength Shifts: Yellowfin Tuna......Page 104 Adaptive Significance......Page 105 References......Page 108 Phototransduction in Microvillar Photoreceptors of Drosophila and Other Invertebrates......Page 112 Glossary......Page 113 Photoreceptor and Retinal Morphology......Page 115 Voltage-Clamped Light-Induced Current......Page 117 Potassium Channels......Page 120 Electroretinogram......Page 121 Strategies for Gene Discovery......Page 122 Rhodopsin......Page 123 Chromophore......Page 125 Invertebrate rhodopsins are bistable......Page 126 Arrestins terminate active metarhodopsin......Page 127 Rhodopsin kinase and phosphatase......Page 128 Arrestin phosphorylation......Page 129 Heterotrimeric G Protein......Page 130 G protein beta and gamma subunits......Page 131 Phospholipase C (NORPA)......Page 132 Measuring phospholipase C activity......Page 133 Light-Sensitive Channels trp and trpl......Page 134 Structure of TRP and TRPL......Page 135 Channel properties......Page 136 trp and trpl phenotypes......Page 137 Scaffolding Protein INAD......Page 138 Evidence for Activation by Lipid Messengers......Page 139 PIP2 Depletion......Page 141 Ca2+-Dependent Feedback and Mechanisms of Adaptation......Page 143 Ca2+ signals are dominated by Ca2+ influx......Page 144 Ca2+ buffers and homeostasis......Page 145 Ca2+-Dependent Negative Feedback......Page 146 Calmodulin......Page 148 Phosphoinositide Metabolism......Page 149 rdgB and Phosphatidylinositol Kinases......Page 150 Compartmentalization and Local Signaling......Page 151 Fast Nonlinear Response Kinetics......Page 152 Refractory Period......Page 153 Adaptation......Page 154 Limulus......Page 155 Mollusks......Page 156 Conclusion......Page 157 References......Page 158 Relevant Websites......Page 165 Central Processing of Visual Information in Insects......Page 166 The Closed Loop of Action and Perception......Page 167 Visually Induced Reflexes and Voluntary Movements: Inner-Loop and Outer-Loop Control......Page 168 General Organization......Page 170 Lamina......Page 171 Lobula Complex......Page 172 Functional Anatomical Pathways......Page 173 Self-motion and optic flow......Page 174 How does the visual system analyze directional motion?......Page 177 Flies as model systems for directional motion processing......Page 178 Lobula plate tangential cells and the processing of directional motion......Page 179 HS and VS cells analyze self-motion-induced optic flow......Page 181 Monocular and binocular integration of motion information......Page 183 Synaptic transmission: the VS-V1 synapse......Page 184 Lobula plate tangential cell network interactions......Page 185 Robustness of encoding self-motion parameters......Page 186 Gain control and motion adaptation......Page 187 Dendritic gain control......Page 188 Local adaptation phenomena......Page 189 Quantitative behavioral studies and electrophysiological replay experiments......Page 190 Open questions......Page 193 Chasing female flies......Page 194 Catching prey on the fly - aerial predators’ visual hunting strategies......Page 197 Discriminating small objects from the background......Page 200 Distance control in hovering hawkmoths......Page 202 Detecting looming objects in locusts......Page 204 Image Segmentation - The Detection of Orientated Contours......Page 208 Visual pigments, photoreceptors, and filters......Page 210 When does an animal have color vision?......Page 211 Neural mechanisms for color coding......Page 212 Adaptations to e-vector detection in the eye......Page 214 Two theoretical models of e-vector detection......Page 215 Neuronal mechanisms......Page 216 The Functional Role of the Ocelli......Page 217 Two Visual Mechanisms - One Motion Parameter......Page 218 Multisensory contributions to inner-loop control......Page 219 Multisensory contributions to outer-loop control......Page 222 The Relationship between Sensory Systems and Motor Systems: Strategies of Sensorimotor Transformation......Page 223 Data Supporting Cognitive Functions......Page 224 Conclusions......Page 226 References......Page 227 Further Reading......Page 237 What Is Color Vision?......Page 240 Spectral Sensitivities of Invertebrate Photoreceptors......Page 241 Color Vision in the Darkness......Page 242 Separation of Chromatic and Achromatic Vision......Page 243 References......Page 244 Visual Ecology......Page 246 Introduction to Visual Ecology......Page 247 Intensity and Duration of Light......Page 248 Spectral Properties of Natural Light......Page 249 Polarized Light in Nature......Page 250 The Biological Visual Environment......Page 251 Visual Optics......Page 252 Receptor Arrays and Retinas......Page 254 Visual Sensitivity (Brightness Adaptation)......Page 256 Spectral Sensitivity, Color Vision, and Ultraviolet Vision......Page 257 Polarization Vision......Page 263 Eye Movements......Page 266 Orientation......Page 267 Predation and Its Avoidance......Page 268 Visual Signaling......Page 270 References......Page 274 Photoreceptor Structure......Page 282 Protein Structure......Page 283 Genetic Structure......Page 284 Rod and Cone Specializations......Page 286 Spectral Tuning of Photopigments......Page 287 Nonrod, Noncone Opsins......Page 289 Evolution of Mammalian Photopigments......Page 290 Photopigment Expression......Page 291 The Mammalian Theme: Two Types of Cone Pigment......Page 292 Evolutionary Loss of Mammalian S-Cone Pigments......Page 293 Primate Cone Pigments and Color Vision......Page 294 Red-green color-vision defects......Page 296 Blue cone monochromacy......Page 297 Tritan color-vision defects......Page 298 References......Page 299 Relevant Website......Page 303 Glossary......Page 304 Morphology of Rods and Cones......Page 305 Light Response of Rods and Cones......Page 306 Intensity-Response Relation......Page 308 Kinetics of the Dim-Flash Response......Page 311 The a-Wave of the Electroretinogram......Page 312 Single-Photon Response......Page 313 Pigment Noise......Page 315 The cGMP-Gated, Light-Suppressible, Nonselective Cation Channel......Page 316 Phototransduction Cascade......Page 319 Background-Light Adaptation......Page 324 Bleaching Adaptation......Page 325 Differences between Rods and Cones......Page 326 Diseases......Page 327 Parietal-Eye Photoreceptor in Lizards and a Possible Evolutionary Linkage to Rods and Cones......Page 329 References......Page 330 Relevant Website......Page 336 Introduction......Page 338 Additional Rod Pathways......Page 343 How Could This Particular Synaptic Disposition Be Evolved?......Page 344 Inherited Photoreceptor Degeneration: How Photoreceptor Death Affects the Architecture of the Rod and Cone Pathways......Page 345 Further Reading......Page 346 Introduction......Page 348 The Presynaptic Complex......Page 349 Feedback from Horizontal Cells......Page 351 Morphological Types of Bipolar Cells......Page 352 Midget Bipolar Cells of the Primate Retina......Page 353 Blue-Cone Bipolar Cells......Page 355 Cone Contacts of Bipolar Cells......Page 356 Glutamate Receptor Subunits......Page 357 ON-Bipolar Cell Glutamate Receptors......Page 358 OFF-Bipolar Cell Glutamate Receptors......Page 359 Temporal Transfer Characteristics......Page 360 Spatial Transfer Characteristics......Page 362 Synaptic Contacts of Bipolar Cells in the Inner Plexiform Layer......Page 363 alpha-Amino-3-Hydroxy-5-Methyl-4-Isoxazolepropionic Acid Receptor Subunits......Page 365 Metabotropic Glutamate Receptors......Page 366 Co-Stratification of Pre- and Postsynaptic Partners in the Inner Plexiform Layer......Page 367 References......Page 368 Morphology in Cat and Rabbit......Page 376 Synaptic Inputs......Page 377 Receptive Field......Page 378 Ephaptic Feedback......Page 379 A Spatiotemporal Bandpass Filter......Page 380 Contribution of Neuron Types......Page 381 References......Page 382 Relevant Website......Page 384 Introduction......Page 386 Random Properties of Bipolar Array......Page 387 Adaptive Properties of Bipolar Array......Page 389 Counter-Phased Grating Reveals Nonlinear Subunits......Page 390 Temporal Frequency Response of Bipolar Cells......Page 391 Contribution to Linear Responses......Page 392 References......Page 393 Neurochemical Diversity......Page 396 Feedback and Feedforward Inhibition......Page 398 Local Processing in Amacrine Cells......Page 399 References......Page 401 Further Reading......Page 402 The P, M and K Streams of the Primate Visual System: What Do They Do for Vision?......Page 404 Numbers, density, and resolution......Page 405 Connectivity: inputs and projections......Page 406 Linearity of spatial summation; X-Y......Page 407 Contrast gain......Page 408 Summary: The Properties of the Three Neuronal Streams......Page 409 Challenges to the Parallel Streams Hypothesis......Page 410 Anatomy......Page 411 The Need for Alternative Theories......Page 412 References......Page 413 Glossary......Page 418 Luminance and Contrast......Page 419 Optimal Basis Sets for Representing Natural Images......Page 420 More Complex Spatial Properties......Page 421 Temporal Statistics of Natural Images......Page 423 References......Page 424 Behavior......Page 428 Statistical Variations in Photon Absorption......Page 429 Behavioral Estimates of Absolute Sensitivity and Dark Noise......Page 430 Limitations to Behavioral Experiments......Page 431 Amplification......Page 432 Dark Noise......Page 434 Reproducibility......Page 435 Retinal Readout of the Rod Signals......Page 438 Sparseness, Convergence, and Nonlinear Processing......Page 439 Extraction......Page 442 Representation......Page 443 Summary......Page 445 References......Page 446 Direction-Selective Ganglion Cells......Page 448 Starburst Amacrine Cells......Page 450 Direction-Selective excitation......Page 452 Computations Based on Network Interactions......Page 453 The Role of Direction-Selective Signals Originating in the Retina......Page 454 References......Page 455 Discovery of Melanopsin......Page 458 Identification of Intrinsically Photosensitive Retinal Ganglion Cells......Page 459 Functional Characterization of Intrinsically Photosensitive Retinal Ganglion Cells......Page 461 Role of Intrinsically Photosensitive Retinal Ganglion Cells in Vision......Page 462 Melanopsin-Activated Phototransduction......Page 463 References......Page 464 Early Studies......Page 468 Anatomical Substrate......Page 469 Current Views of Cell Physiology......Page 470 Conclusions......Page 471 References......Page 472 Relevant Website......Page 473 Glossary......Page 474 Local Patterning in the Distribution of Retinal Nerve Cell Types......Page 475 Nearest neighbor analysis......Page 476 Voronoi-based analyses......Page 478 Autocorrelation analysis and the density recovery profile......Page 479 Packing factor analysis......Page 480 Functional Implications of Regular Retinal Mosaics......Page 481 Dendritic tiling and contact inhibition......Page 483 Regulating dendritic overlap by homotypic interactions......Page 486 Dendritic Coverage and Connectivity......Page 487 References......Page 488 Gap Junctions......Page 492 Clinical Relevance......Page 493 Cone-to-cone coupling......Page 494 Rod-to-cone coupling......Page 495 Horizontal Cells......Page 496 A-type horizontal cells and Cx50......Page 497 B-type horizontal cells......Page 498 AII Amacrine Cells/ON Cone Bipolar Cells, a Complex Heterocellular Network......Page 499 AII/ON cone bipolar gap junctions......Page 500 Physiology......Page 501 Alpha ganglion cells......Page 502 Synchronized firing......Page 503 References......Page 504 Glossary......Page 508 Dark rearing retards developmental segregation of ON and OFF pathways in retinal ganglion cells......Page 510 Molecular or genetic mechanisms mediating this activity-dependent developmental plasticity remain elusive......Page 513 Light deprivation alters the normal developmental sequence of excitatory and inhibitory synaptic inputs to retinal ganglion cells......Page 514 Visual experience controls development of serotonergic amacrine cells in chick retina......Page 516 Ambient Background Light Regulates Horizontal Cell Synapses and Gap Junction Coupling between Horizontal Cells......Page 517 Light and Dark Conditions Modify the Morphology of Bipolar Cell Axons......Page 518 Light and Dark Controls Gap Junction Coupling and Receptive Field Properties of Amacrine Cells......Page 519 Light and Dark Adaptation Controls Receptive Field Organization of Retinal Ganglion Cells......Page 520 Rewiring of Synaptic Connections in Outer Retina in Response to Photoreceptor Degeneration or Loss of Synaptic Signaling......Page 521 References......Page 522 Relevant Website......Page 525 Introduction......Page 526 Ganglion Cell Types......Page 527 Morphological Classification......Page 528 A Survey of Some Conserved Ganglion Cell Types......Page 529 Melanopsin-Expressing Retinal Ganglion Cells......Page 530 ON Direction-Selective Cells......Page 532 Local Edge Detectors......Page 534 ON-OFF Direction-Selective Cells......Page 536 Alpha Cells......Page 537 Beta Cells......Page 540 Methods for Linking Retinofugal Projections to Retinal Ganglion Cell Types......Page 541 Lateral Geniculate Complex and Dorsal Thalamus......Page 542 Superior Colliculus......Page 544 Pretectal Region......Page 546 Hypothalamic Region......Page 547 References......Page 548 Further Reading......Page 554 Advantages of a Mobile Pupil......Page 556 Overview of the Pathways Controlling Pupil Diameter......Page 557 Iris Musculature......Page 559 Afferent Pathway......Page 560 Pretectal olivary nucleus......Page 561 Sympathetic Influences on the Pupillary Light Reflex......Page 563 Afferent Influences on the Pupillary Near Response......Page 564 Additional Cortical Influences on Pupillary Responses......Page 565 Influence of Alertness on Pupillary Behavior......Page 566 Ascending Neuromodulatory Systems......Page 567 Dysfunctions in the Light Reflex Pathway......Page 568 References......Page 569 Further Reading......Page 571 The Hypothalamic Suprachiasmatic Nucleus......Page 572 Molecular Components of the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus Circadian Oscillator......Page 573 Suprachiasmatic Nucleus Neurons Express a Circadian Rhythm in Neural Activity......Page 575 A Retinohypothalamic Tract Innervates the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus......Page 576 Photic Entrainment of the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus......Page 577 Parametric entrainment......Page 578 Entrainment in nature......Page 579 Entrainment Confers Clock-Like Properties to the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus......Page 580 Serotonergic Modulation of Photic Input to the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus......Page 581 5-HT1B Receptor-Mediated Inhibition of Retinohypothalamic Tract Input to the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus......Page 582 Anatomical Organization of the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus......Page 583 Afferent and Efferent Connections......Page 584 Summary......Page 585 References......Page 586 Introduction......Page 592 Properties of T-Type Ca2+ Channels......Page 593 Properties of Burst and Tonic Firing......Page 595 Circuit Properties......Page 596 Functional Features......Page 597 The cat lateral geniculate nucleus......Page 599 Lateral geniculate nucleus......Page 600 Drivers and Modulators......Page 601 Layer 5 Corticothalamic Inputs as Drivers......Page 604 Role of Higher-Order Thalamic Relays in Corticocortical Processing......Page 606 Overview......Page 607 Conclusions......Page 608 References......Page 609 Further Reading......Page 610 Glossary......Page 612 Functional Organization of Area V1: Anatomical Modules and Functional Maps......Page 613 Hue Maps......Page 615 Interrelationships Among V1 Functional Maps......Page 617 Color, Hue, and Luminance-Change Maps......Page 618 Contour Maps......Page 619 V4 Modular Cortical Connections......Page 620 MT Single-Unit Mapping......Page 623 Inferotemporal Areas......Page 624 Inferotemporal Functional Modules......Page 625 References......Page 626 Further Reading......Page 628 Occipital Visual Areas......Page 630 Primary Visual Cortex......Page 631 V4/V8......Page 633 V5 (Human MT+)......Page 634 V3A/V3B......Page 635 Ventral Stream Areas......Page 636 Lateral Occipital Complex......Page 637 Fusiform Face Area......Page 638 Dorsal Stream Areas......Page 639 Parieto-Occipital Cortex/V6......Page 640 Superior Parietal Lobule and Inferior Parietal Lobule......Page 641 References......Page 642 Volume 2 - Vision II......Page 650 Temporal Coherence: A Versatile Code for the Definition of Relations......Page 653 Synchrony as Tag of Relatedness......Page 654 The Role of Oscillations in Adjusting Spike Timing......Page 655 Feature Specific Binding by Gamma Phase-Dependent Spike Timing in Primary Visual Cortex......Page 656 Mechanisms of Read-Out......Page 657 Synchrony and Feature Binding......Page 658 Preattentive versus Attention-Dependent Grouping......Page 659 Further Reading......Page 660 Object Vision Pathway......Page 663 Effects of Inferior Temporal Damage on Object Recognition......Page 665 Stimulus Selectivity of Neurons in the Inferior Temporal Cortex......Page 668 Invariance Properties of Inferior Temporal Neurons (Invariance With Respect to Position, Orientation and Size)......Page 670 Columnar Organization of the Inferior Temporal Cortex......Page 671 Plasticity of the Stimulus Selectivity of Neurons in the Inferior Temporal Cortex......Page 672 Coding Schemes for Object Representation......Page 674 Future Perspectives and Concluding Remarks......Page 676 References......Page 677 Glossary......Page 681 Why are Luminance and Contrast Sensitivities Important?......Page 682 Spatiotemporal Selectivity: The Two-Scales Design......Page 683 Contrast......Page 684 Single units......Page 685 Functional magnetic resonance imaging......Page 686 Lateral geniculate nucleus......Page 687 Contrast adaptation in parallel visual streams......Page 688 Contrast......Page 689 Cellular basis of the temporal contrast sensitivity function......Page 690 Some Clinical Implications......Page 691 References......Page 692 Relevant Website......Page 695 Influence of Contrast on Perceived Brightness and Lightness......Page 697 Neural Mechanisms of Brightness/Lightness Perception......Page 699 Perceptual Filling-In......Page 700 Neural Mechanisms of Filling-In......Page 701 References......Page 703 Further Reading......Page 704 Glossary......Page 705 Introduction......Page 706 Light Intensity......Page 707 Light Spectrum......Page 708 Sources of Visual Noise......Page 709 A Trade-Off between Resolution and Sensitivity......Page 710 The Eyes of Arthropods and Vertebrates......Page 711 Vision and Visual Behavior in Nocturnal Arthropods......Page 712 Spider camera eyes......Page 713 Insect compound eyes......Page 715 Signal transduction in nocturnal arthropod photoreceptors......Page 716 Spatial and temporal summation......Page 717 Visual Behavior in Nocturnal Arthropods......Page 719 Nocturnal navigation and homing......Page 720 Nocturnal color vision......Page 722 Vision and Visual Behavior in Nocturnal Birds and Primates......Page 723 Optical Adaptations for Increased Sensitivity......Page 724 Neural Adaptations for Increased Sensitivity......Page 726 Vision versus other senses at night......Page 729 Visual performance in dim light......Page 730 Visually guided prey capture, locomotion, and navigation......Page 732 References......Page 734 Glossary......Page 739 Univariance and Trichromacy......Page 740 Color Matching Functions......Page 741 Dichromacy and Monochromacy......Page 742 Historical Overview......Page 743 From Cone Spectral Sensitivities to Color Matching Functions......Page 744 Rod Spectral Sensitivity Measurements......Page 745 Photopic Luminous Efficiency......Page 746 Other Factors that Influence Spectral Sensitivity......Page 747 Macular Pigment......Page 748 References......Page 749 Relevant Website......Page 752 Glossary......Page 753 Introduction......Page 754 Psychophysical Color Mechanisms......Page 755 Cardinal Mechanisms......Page 757 R and G Mechanisms......Page 758 B and Y Mechanisms......Page 760 I and D Mechanisms......Page 762 Higher-Order Mechanisms......Page 763 References......Page 766 The Color Signal and Spectral Sampling......Page 771 Related Colors......Page 772 Illuminant and Viewing Media......Page 774 Relational Color Constancy......Page 775 Sensory and Perceptual Cues......Page 776 Spatial Ratios of Cone Excitations......Page 777 Achromatic Adjustment......Page 778 Role of Task and Stimulus......Page 779 Processing in Retina and Lateral Geniculate Nucleus......Page 780 Inherited Color-Vision Deficiency......Page 781 References......Page 782 Introduction......Page 785 Implementations......Page 786 Research on Motion......Page 787 The Reichardt Detector......Page 788 Reverse-Phi......Page 789 Pattern dependence......Page 790 Facilitation and suppression......Page 791 Reverse-phi......Page 792 Shunting inhibition......Page 793 The Motion Energy Model......Page 795 Physiological Evidence......Page 796 Input from the lateral geniculate nucleus......Page 797 Linear summation......Page 799 Motion opponency......Page 800 Space-Time Gradients......Page 801 Physiological Evidence......Page 802 Conclusion......Page 803 References......Page 804 Introduction......Page 809 Simple Cells and Linear Motion Mechanisms......Page 810 Nonlinear Motion Mechanisms......Page 812 Complex Cells and Motion Energy......Page 813 Circuitry Underlying Local Motion Processing......Page 814 The Spatial Scale of Local Motion Operations......Page 815 Extrastriate Local Motion Processing......Page 816 Anatomy and Connections......Page 817 Physiological Properties and Functional Organization......Page 818 Motion Integration: The Aperture Problem......Page 819 The Problem with Integration: Segmentation Is Needed Too......Page 821 The Effect of Contrast......Page 822 Relating MT to Perception......Page 823 Adaptation......Page 824 Attention and Memory......Page 825 Human MT......Page 826 What Is Optic Flow?......Page 827 Area Medial Superior Temporal......Page 828 Extraretinal Inputs......Page 829 Other Areas with Optic Flow Responses......Page 831 Higher Motion Areas in Cat Visual Cortex......Page 832 References......Page 833 Glossary......Page 841 Motion Noise......Page 844 The Aperture Problem......Page 845 Receptive Fields for Measuring Motion......Page 846 A Note on Terminology......Page 847 Tiling: The Simplest Model......Page 848 Tiling and Motion Noise......Page 849 Plaids......Page 850 Plaid Physiology......Page 851 Integrationist Models......Page 852 The Intersection of Constraints, or Fourier-Plane, Model......Page 854 Challenges to Integrationist Models......Page 856 Intersection of Constraints, Vector Average, or Feature Tracking?......Page 857 Bar-Field Physiology......Page 858 Physiological Evidence for Early 2D Motion Signals......Page 860 Theoretical Considerations: Redundancy Reduction......Page 863 Selectionist Models......Page 864 Future Challenges......Page 865 Final Thoughts......Page 866 References......Page 867 Relevant Websites......Page 870 Glossary......Page 871 Translational Component......Page 872 Combined Translation and Rotation......Page 873 Perception of Translational Heading......Page 874 Retinal Flow Theories......Page 875 Simulated Rotation......Page 876 The Path of Self-Motion......Page 877 The Optic Flow Illusion......Page 878 Neural Level......Page 879 References......Page 880 Glossary......Page 883 References......Page 888 The Computation of Transparency......Page 891 Anchoring Perceived Transmittance......Page 894 Scission and the Perception of Lightness......Page 895 References......Page 896 Glossary......Page 897 Orders of Depth......Page 899 Human Perception of Three-Dimensional Shape......Page 901 Monkey Perception of Three-Dimensional Structure......Page 902 Area MT/V5......Page 903 Beyond MT/V5......Page 904 Human MT/V5+......Page 905 V3A and parietal regions......Page 908 MT/V5 and satellites......Page 909 Other cortical regions......Page 911 Higher-order disparity selectivity in TEs, part of the inferotemporal complex......Page 914 Exquisite coding of three-dimensional shape from disparity by TEs neurons......Page 917 The invariance of three-dimensional shape selectivity in TEs......Page 918 Selectivity of caudal intraparietal neurons for first-order disparity......Page 919 Single-Cell Studies......Page 920 Conclusions......Page 921 References......Page 922 Relevant Websites......Page 926 The Binding Problem and Limits on Object Recognition......Page 927 Real Time Methods......Page 928 Feature Guidance......Page 929 Biased Competition......Page 930 Terminating Unsuccessful Searches......Page 931 References......Page 932 Glossary......Page 933 Surface-Based Attentional Selection......Page 934 Neural Basis of Surface-Based Attention......Page 936 Neural Basis of Competitive Interactions......Page 937 Neural Integration of Competition......Page 938 Neural Control Signals (Bias Inducers)......Page 939 References......Page 940 Introduction: Active Vision - Saccadic Eye Movements and Visual Perception......Page 943 Visual Representations and the Guidance of Saccadic Eye Movements......Page 944 Psychophysical Links between Covert Spatial Attention