The Role of Microbiome in the Induction, Diagnosis, and Therapy of Skin Cancer

This book highlights the molecular and cellular mechanisms involved in the initiation and progression of skin cancer. It also explains the role of the environment in skin cancer development and explores the potential of microbiome in the diagnosis, prevention and treatment of skin cancer. The book also presents potential biomarkers for early detection of skin cancer and discusses recent advances in skin cancer prevention and treatment using photodynamic therapy. Lastly, it summarizes the applications of biomedical engineering, non-coding and nanotechnology in the diagnosis and therapeutics in skin cancer. It is a valuable resource for investigators in the field of skin cancer, including pathologists, medical and surgical oncologists, and dermatologists. Contents About the Editors 1: Cancer of the Skin: Types and Etiology 1.1 Nonmelanoma Skin Cancer 1.2 Actinic Keratoses 1.3 Basal Cell Carcinoma 1.4 Squamous Cell Carcinoma 1.5 Angiosarcoma 1.5.1 Radiation 1.5.2 Chronic Lymphoedema 1.5.3 Environmental Carcinogens 1.5.4 Genetic Syndromes 1.6 Dermatofibrosarcoma Protuberans 1.7 Merkel Cell Carcinoma 1.8 Microcystic Adnexal Carcinoma 1.9 Sebaceous Carcinoma 1.10 Extramammary Paget Disease 1.11 Atypical Fibroxanthoma and Malignant Fibrous Histiocytoma 1.12 Carcinoma Metastatic to Skin 1.13 Conclusion References 2: Therapeutic Intervention in Skin Cancer: Future Prospects 2.1 Immunotherapy 2.1.1 Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors (ICIs) Therapy and Their Combinations 2.1.1.1 Performance of ICIs 2.1.1.2 Concerns with ICIs 2.1.1.3 Reason for Lack of Efficacy of ICIs 2.1.1.4 Future Prospects of ICI Therapy 2.1.2 Melanoma Vaccine 2.1.3 Interleukin-2 Therapy 2.2 Targeted Therapies 2.2.1 BRAF Inhibitors 2.2.2 MEK Inhibitors 2.2.3 C-Kit Inhibitors 2.3 Oncolytic Virus Based Therapy 2.4 Photodynamic Therapy (PDT) 2.5 Challenges and Emerging Approaches Associated with Non-Conventional Therapies 2.5.1 Biomarkers: Transition from Generalized to Personalized Therapy 2.5.1.1 Clinical Endpoints 2.5.1.2 Blood Counts and Derived Values 2.5.1.3 Tumor Mutation Burden (TMB) 2.5.1.4 Lactate Dehydrogenase (LDH) 2.5.1.5 Cytokines 2.5.1.6 Soluble Checkpoint Molecules 2.5.1.7 Circulating Tumor Cells 2.5.1.8 Circulating Tumor DNA (ctDNA) 2.5.1.9 Exosomes 2.5.1.10 Gut Microbiome 2.5.2 New Treatment Approaches 2.5.2.1 Emerging Immunotherapies Lymphocyte-Activation Gene 3 (LAG-3) T Cell Immunoglobulin and Mucin-Domain-Containing Molecule 3 (TIM-3) Toll Like Receptors (TLRs) Myeloid Derived Suppressor Cells (MDSCs) Tumor-Infiltrating Lymphocytes (TIL) Infusions 2.5.2.2 Gut Microbiome Alteration 2.5.2.3 Metabolomics Based Approaches Glucose Metabolism Based Targets Amino Acids Based Targets Lipid Based Targets References 3: Melanin Based Classification of Skin Types and Their Susceptibility to UV-Induced Cancer 3.1 Skin and Its Biological Functions 3.2 Histological Structure of Skin 3.3 Melanocyte and Skin Pigmentation 3.4 Melanocyte Ultrastructure and Intracellular Dynamics 3.5 Melanin Pigment and Its Synthesis 3.6 Regulation of Melanin Synthesis by Sun Exposure 3.7 Skin Pigmentation Diversity and Classification of Skin Types 3.8 Skin Cancer and UV-Induced Damage 3.9 Photoprotective Role of Melanin 3.10 Deleterious Effects of Melanin 3.11 Conclusion References 4: The Epidemiology of Skin Cancer Worldwide 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Melanoma 4.3 Non-Melanoma Skin Cancer 4.3.1 Basal Cell Carcinoma 4.3.2 Squamous Cell Carcinoma 4.3.3 Actinic Keratosis 4.4 Merkel Cell Carcinoma 4.5 Kaposi Sarcoma 4.6 Cutaneous Lymphoma 4.7 Conclusions References 5: UVR Induced Vitamin D Synthesis and Skin Cancer 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Vitamin D Synthesis and Metabolism 5.3 UVR and Skin Cancer 5.4 Vitamin D and Skin Cancer 5.5 Conclusion References 6: The Role of Microbiome in the Induction, Diagnosis, and Therapy of Skin Cancer 6.1 Skin Microbiome: Structure and Function 6.2 Viral Oncogenesis and Skin Cancer 6.2.1 Kaposi Sarcoma and Kaposi Sarcoma Herpesvirus/Human Herpesvirus 8 6.2.2 Merkel Cell Carcinoma and Merkel Cell Polyomavirus 6.2.3 Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma and Human Papillomavirus 6.3 Bacterial Oncogenesis and Skin Cancer 6.3.1 Skin Microbiome, Chronic Inflammatory Diseases, and Skin Cancer 6.3.2 Skin Microbiome and Skin Cancer 6.4 Gut Microbiome and Therapy for Melanoma References 7: Skin Cancer: Molecular Biomarker for Diagnosis, Prognosis, Prevention, and Targeted Therapy 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Skin Phototype as Biomarkers in Skin Cancers 7.3 Genetic Alterations as Biomarkers in Skin Cancers 7.4 Molecular Pathway Genes as Biomarkers 7.5 Molecular Biomarkers for Targeted Therapy 7.6 Epigenetic Biomarkers in Skin Cancers 7.7 miRNAs as Biomarkers in Skin Cancer 7.8 miRNA in Tissues of Melanoma 7.9 Circulating miRNAs in Melanoma 7.10 miRNA Differentiating Melanoma from Non-Melanoma Skin Cancers 7.11 miRNA Profile in Therapy Resistant Melanoma 7.12 miRNAs as Predictor of Therapeutic Efficacy 7.13 miRNAs Status in Non-Melanoma Skin Cancers 7.14 Biophysical Biomarkers in Skin Cancer 7.15 Conclusions References 8: Therapeutics Intervention of Skin Cancer in the OMICS Era 8.1 Introduction to OMICS 8.2 Application of OMICS in Skin Cancer Therapy 8.2.1 Genomics Approach in Skin Cancer Therapy 8.2.2 Proteomics Approach in Skin Cancer Therapy 8.2.3 Transcriptomics Approach in Skin Cancer Therapy 8.2.4 Radiomics Approach in Skin Cancer Therapy 8.2.5 Microbiomics Approach in Skin Cancer Therapy 8.3 Future of Multi-OMICS Studies in Skin Cancer Prevention References 9: Artificial Intelligence in Skin Cancer: Diagnosis and Therapy 9.1 Introduction 9.1.1 Overview of Skin Cancer 9.1.2 Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Its Applications in Healthcare 9.2 Application of AI in the Early Detection of Skin Cancer 9.2.1 Image-Based Detection 9.2.1.1 Dermatoscopic Images and Datasets for the Development of AI-Based Model 9.2.1.2 Mobile Applications in the Personal Monitoring of Skin Cancer 9.2.1.3 Teledermatology and Teledermoscopy in the Detection of Skin Cancer 9.2.2 Clinical Data-Based Skin Cancer Detection 9.3 Artificial Intelligence in Skin Cancer Therapy 9.3.1 Risk Assessment Models 9.3.2 Risk Assessment Models 9.3.3 Genome Variants for Skin Cancer Therapy 9.3.4 Transcriptomics and Epigenomics in Skin Cancer Therapy 9.3.5 Imaging for Skin Cancer Therapy 9.3.6 Liquid Biopsy in Skin Cancer Therapy 9.4 Conclusion References 10: Biomedical Engineering in Cancer Diagnosis and Therapy 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Types of Biosensors for Cancer Diagnostics 10.2.1 Piezoelectric Biosensors 10.2.2 Colorimetric Biosensors 10.2.3 Fluorescent Biosensors 10.2.4 Gold Nanoparticle (AuNP)-Based Sensors 10.3 Imaging Methods for Cancer Detection 10.3.1 Ultrasound (US) 10.3.2 X-Ray and Computed Tomography (CT). 10.3.3 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) 10.3.4 Single-Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT) 10.3.5 Positron Emission Tomography (PET) 10.3.6 Optical Imaging (OI) 10.4 Cancer Therapy 10.4.1 Drug Delivery 10.4.2 Immunotherapy 10.4.3 Radiotherapy 10.4.4 Robotic Assisted Laproscopic Surgeries 10.5 In Vitro Models of Cancer 10.5.1 Why In Vitro Models? 10.5.2 Existing 3D Models of Essential and Metastatic Malignancy 10.5.2.1 Spheroids 10.5.2.2 Scaffolds 10.5.2.3 Microfluidic Devices 10.5.2.4 Bioreactors 10.6 Conclusion References 11: Skin Cancer Treatment with Emphasis on Nanotechnology 11.1 Introduction 11.1.1 Background 11.1.2 Types of Skin Cancer 11.1.2.1 Malignant Melanoma 11.1.2.2 Nonmelanocytic Skin Cancer 11.2 Pathology and Conventional Therapies of Skin Cancer 11.2.1 Malignant Melanoma Skin Cancer (MSC) 11.2.2 Non-Melanoma Skin Cancer (NMSC) 11.3 Challenges to Skin Cancer Treatment 11.3.1 Biological Barriers 11.3.2 Multidrug Resistance (MDR) 11.4 Nanoparticles as Drug Carriers 11.4.1 Nanoparticles Technologies for Drug Delivery 11.4.1.1 Liposomes 11.4.1.2 Natural Polymeric Nanoparticle 11.4.1.3 Synthetic Polymeric Nanoparticle 11.4.1.4 Dendrimers 11.4.1.5 Nanofibres 11.4.1.6 Silica Nanoparticles 11.4.1.7 Gold Nanoparticles 11.5 Treatment Strategies 11.5.1 Chemotherapy 11.5.2 Protein-Based-Therapy 11.5.3 Biological Therapies 11.6 Conclusion and Future Perspective References 12: Non-Long Coding RNA and Role in Skin Cancer Diagnosis and Therapy 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Long ncRNAs in Melanoma 12.3 SPRY4-IT1 12.4 HOTAIR (HOX Transcript Antisense Intergenic RNA) 12.5 ANRIL (Antisense Non-Coding RNA in the INK4 Locus) 12.6 BANCR (BRAF-Activated Non-Coding RNA) 12.7 Conclusion References 13: Potential of Long Non-coding RNAs in the Diagnosis and Therapy of Melanoma Skin Cancer 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Experimental Methods and Tools for Analyzing lncRNAs in Melanoma 13.2.1 LncRNAs Expression Profiling Techniques 13.2.1.1 Microarray 13.2.1.2 RNA-Sequencing 13.2.2 Validation of Arrays and RNA-Seq Data 13.2.2.1 Quantitative Reverse Transcription PCR (qRT-PCR) 13.2.2.2 Northern Blot (NB) Analysis 13.2.2.3 In Situ Hybridization (ISH) or Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization (FISH) 13.3 Datasets and Bioinformatics Tools for Analyzing lncRNAs in Skin Cancer 13.3.1 Bioinformatic Analysis 13.3.2 Data Analysis 13.4 Modulation of Cell Signaling Pathways by lncRNAs in Melanoma Skin Cancer 13.5 Long Non-Coding RNAs as a Predictive Marker for Melanoma Skin Cancer 13.5.1 MALAT1 13.5.2 HOTAIR 13.5.3 BANCR 13.5.4 ANRIL 13.5.5 UCA1 13.5.6 LLME23 13.5.7 SAMMSON 13.5.8 SLNCR1 13.5.9 SPRY4-IT1 13.5.10 FALEC1 13.5.11 GAS5 13.6 Diagnostic and Prognostic Potential of lncRNAs in Melanoma 13.7 Therapeutic Potential of lncRNAs in Melanoma Cancer 13.7.1 Targeted Silencing of lncRNAs with Oncogenic Features 13.7.2 LncRNAs Replacements and Overexpression of Tumor Suppressor lncRNAs. 13.8 Potential of lncRNAs in Predicting Chemoresistance and Radioresistance in Melanoma Skin Cancer 13.9 Conclusion References