The Robomobility Revolution of Urban Public Transport: A Social Sciences Perspective (Transportation Research, Economics and Policy)

"Over the past two decades, society has been witnessing how technological, political, and societal changes have been transforming individual and collective urban mobility. Driven both by newcomers and traditional players, by disruptive as well as incremental innovations, the main objective now is to enhance mobility and accessibility while, reducing vehicle ownership, congestion, road accidents, and pollution in cities. This transformation has been mainly enabled by the widespread adoption of internet-connected devices (e.g.: smartphones and tablets) and by the innovative business models, technologies, and use-cases that arose from this rapid digitalization, such as peer-to-peer, and two-sided markets providing several mobility schemes: car-sharing, car-pooling, bike sharing, free-floating (cars, bikes, electric scooter), ridesharing and ride hailing either for long distances as well as for urban and micro-mobility. The book presents in a holistic perspective how this revolution is happening and what are the major cornerstones for the implementation of robomobility. It aims at answering several substantial issues, such as: What is robomobility and what does it imply for the different stakeholders of the public transport ecosystem? How do policy makers integrate this innovation and how ready the regulations are? How do citizens take part in this transformation? What is the level of user acceptance for this new type of mobility? What are its environmental impacts? What is the economic impact of deploying these shuttles in a local ecosystem?"-- Provided by publisher Foreword Introduction: Bricks and Mortar of the Urban Public Transport Revolution Acknowledgments Contents Part I: Robomobility Implementation into Public Transport Networks Chapter 1: Autonomous on-Demand Vehicles and the (R)evolution of Public Transport Business Models 1.1 Introduction 1.2 (R)evolution of Public Transport: From Rails to Streets 1.2.1 The Evolution of Public Transport Automation – Automation on Rails 1.2.2 The Revolution of Public Transport Automation – The Emergence of AVCTs 1.3 Collective, Public, and Shared: The Disruption of on-Demand Public Transport 1.3.1 Operating Costs of AVCTs 1.3.2 On-Demand Stages for Autonomous Public Transport Services 1.4 Business Models Opportunities with on-Demand Autonomous Shuttles 1.4.1 AVCTs as a Transport Mode Within MaaS Offerings 1.4.2 Advantages of on-Demand AVCTs for Public Transport 1.5 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 2: Evolution of Government Policy for Autonomous Mobility: Korean and French Cases and Their Differences 2.1 Introduction 2.2 South Korean AV Policy 2.2.1 Evolution of the Korean AV Policies 2.2.1.1 Recognition Phase (2012) 2.2.1.2 Selection Phase (2013–2014) 2.2.1.3 Planning Phase (2015–2016) 2.2.1.4 Acceleration Phase (2017–2021) 2.2.2 Korean Government’s Goals in AV Deployment 2.2.3 Legal and Regulatory Framework 2.2.3.1 Motor Vehicle Management Act 2.2.3.2 Road Traffic Act 2.2.3.3 Act on the Promotion and Support of Commercialization of Autonomous Vehicles (Autonomous Vehicles Act) 2.2.4 Policies for Social Acceptance 2.2.5 Implications from Korean AV Policy 2.3 French Case of AV Policy 2.3.1 Milestones in AV Policy-Making in France 2.3.2 Key Legislation for AV Development and Deployment 2.3.2.1 Energy Transition for Green Growth Act (LTECV) 2.3.2.2 Action Plan for Business Growth and Transformation Plan (PACTE Act) 2.3.2.3 Mobility Orientation Act (Loi d’Orientation des Mobilités, LOM) 2.3.3 Autonomous Shuttle Experiments in France 2.4 A Bibliometric Analysis of AV Policy Documents 2.4.1 Methodology 2.4.2 Results 2.4.3 Discussion 2.5 Concluding Remarks: Comparison of Korea and France References Chapter 3: How to Assess Regulation Openness for Autonomous Driving in Public Transport? The ROAD Index 3.1 Introduction 3.2 The International and European Regulatory Frameworks for Robomobility 3.2.1 The International Framework: Toward a Worldwide Harmonization 3.2.1.1 Safety and Integration in Road Traffic 3.2.1.2 The Evolution of Regulation 79 on Safety 3.2.1.3 Cybersecurity and Personal Data Protection 3.2.1.4 Liability Attribution 3.2.2 The European Framework: Slow but Determined Progress 3.2.3 The Regulatory Design Process for Robomobility: A Threefold Legal Framework 3.2.3.1 The Administrative Law 3.2.3.2 The Civil Law 3.2.3.3 The Criminal Law 3.3 Regulation Assessment: The Regulatory Openness for Autonomous Driving Index (ROAD Index) 3.3.1 Variables Scoring for the Index 3.3.1.1 Variable 1 – National Industrial Policy Strength 3.3.1.2 Variable 2 – National Policy for Sustainable Development 3.3.1.3 Variable 1 – Local Territories Autonomy 3.3.1.4 Variable 4 – Governance and the Existence of an Integrator at Local Level 3.3.2 Analysis of ROAD Index Variables Applied to Four European Cities 3.3.2.1 Copenhagen, Denmark 3.3.2.2 Lyon, France 3.3.2.3 Luxembourg City, Luxembourg 3.3.2.4 Geneva, Switzerland 3.3.3 Scoring the ROAD Index 3.3.4 The Road Index for the Four European Test Cities 3.4 Conclusion Appendices Appendix 1 – Local Autonomy Index by Countries (from Keuffer, 2017) Appendix 2 – Local Autonomy Assessment from the EC Appendix 3 – GERD Index References Chapter 4: Economic Assessment of Services with Intelligent Autonomous Vehicles: EASI-AV 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Theoretical Framework: Autonomous Mobility Impact Assessment 4.2.1 Autonomous Vehicles for Collective Transport (AVCTs) 4.2.2 Economic Impact Assessment of AVCTs 4.3 The EASI-AV Simulation Tool 4.3.1 EASY-AV Design Methodology 4.3.2 EASY-AV Structure 4.3.2.1 Part 1 – Service Contextualization 4.3.2.2 Part 2 – Fleet Size Dimensioning 4.3.2.3 Part 3 – TCO Evaluation 4.3.2.4 Part 4 – Local Externalities Assessment 4.3.2.5 Part 5 – Global Impact Evaluation and Scenarios 4.3.3 EASI-AV Application on a Test Pilot in Luxembourg 4.3.3.1 Part 1 – Service Contextualization 4.3.3.2 Part 2 – Fleet Size Dimensioning 4.3.3.3 Part 3 – TCO Evaluation 4.3.3.4 Part 4 – Local Externalities Assessment 4.3.3.5 Part 5 – Global Impact Evaluation and Scenarios 4.4 Economic Impact Evaluation: a Holistic View 4.4.1 The Scope of Economic Impact Evaluation 4.4.2 Scenarios Assessment 4.4.3 Current Limits of EASI-AV 4.5 Conclusion References Chapter 5: From Demonstrator to Public Service: The AVENUE Experience 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Overview of the AVENUE Project 5.2.1 On-demand Mobility 5.2.2 Autonomous Vehicles 5.2.3 The AVENUE Autonomous Vehicles 5.2.4 Autonomous Vehicle Service Operation Overview 5.3 From Demonstrator to Public Service 5.3.1 Regulatory Framework 5.3.1.1 Autonomous Vehicles’ Certification 5.3.1.2 Autonomous Vehicles for Public Transportation 5.3.2 Passenger Services 5.4 The AVENUE Experience in Organising Autonomous Vehicles’ Public Transportation Services 5.4.1 The Geneva Demonstrator 5.4.1.1 Vehicle Homologation 5.4.1.2 Test Site Homologation 5.4.1.3 Application Process 5.4.2 The Copenhagen Demonstrator 5.4.2.1 The Role of the Assessor 5.4.2.2 Vehicle Homologation 5.4.2.3 Test Site Homologation 5.4.2.4 Nordhavn Status/Complication 5.5 And the Quest Continues ... 5.5.1 Transport Service Policies 5.5.2 More Legal Questions 5.6 The Road Ahead for the AVENUE Project References Part II: Integrating Robomobility in the Larger Perspective of Urban Mobility Innovation Embedded in Societal Contexts Chapter 6: Recommendations for a User-Centered Design of Mobility Solutions 6.1 Introduction 6.2 User-Centered Analysis of Trials 6.3 User-Centered Diagnosis of Problems 6.3.1 Methodology 6.3.2 Results: Expressing Mobility Problems 6.3.3 Illustration of an Enriched Mobility Problem Through the Mobility Problem Causality Scheme 6.4 User-Centered Innovation 6.4.1 Methodology 6.4.2 Results: Innovating for Shared Mobility 6.4.2.1 From the Initial Idea to the Definition of Value Buckets 6.4.2.2 From the Ambition Perimeter to the Business Design of an Innovative Solution 6.5 Discussion 6.6 Conclusions and Future Work References Chapter 7: The Integration of Innovative Mobility into the Urban Transport Network: A Literature Review 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Research Efforts Innovative Mobility and Public Transport 7.3 Strategic Perspective 7.4 Tactical Perspective 7.5 Operational Perspective 7.6 Innovative Mobility: Future of Integration References Chapter 8: Public Transport in Emerging Countries: From Old Dilemmas to Opportunities for Transition to Sustainable Mobility Through the Case of Brazil 8.1 Public Transport in Brazil: Context, Dilemmas and Covid-19 8.2 The Role of Automakers in the Transition to Sustainable Mobility: From the Point of View of Solutions for Public Transport 8.2.1 Innovations in Public Transport – BRT as a Solution for Large Brazilian Cities and the Difficulties in Implementing More Sustainable Technologies 8.2.2 Electrical/Hybrid Buses in São Paulo – Barriers to Implementation of Cleaner Technologies 8.3 The Role of New Mobility Service Providers in the Transition to Sustainable Mobility in Brazil: Barriers and Drivers for the Business Models Implementation 8.3.1 Barriers and Drivers for the Implementation of the Analyzed Business Models 8.4 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 9: MaaS as a Catalyst for the Public Transport Revolution in Developing Countries 9.1 Introduction 9.2 MaaS as a Disruptive Innovation and AVs as a Disruptive Technology 9.3 Smart Cities and the Ecosystem of Mobility 9.4 Unveiling MaaS: The Theoretical Tripod of Business Ecosystem, PSS and Eco-innovation 9.5 A New Perspective: MaaS 2.0 9.6 Low- or High-Tech Transport Modals Which Would Better Fit MaaS? 9.7 Conclusion References Chapter 10: Reflexions on Urban Mobility Governance: Moving Towards Tomorrow’s Robomobility 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Current Global Situation of New Means of Governance 10.2.1 Common Causes of the Model Change 10.2.2 Notion of a Transport Organization Authority 10.3 Challenges Concerning This New Transport Governance 10.3.1 Economic and Financial Challenges 10.3.2 Environmental Challenges: Towards Ecological Transition 10.4 From Private Innovation to New Public Transport Mobility 10.4.1 Innovative Solutions for Private and Individual Mobility 10.4.2 Autonomous Vehicles: An Innovative, Collective, and Public Solution 10.4.3 Shared Public Transport on Demand 10.5 Conclusion References Conclusion The Urban Public Transport Revolution: Paradigm Shift? Index