The Rise of the Commercial Space Industry: Early Space Age to the Present

This collection explores the evolution of the commercial space industry from the beginning of the space age through the early twenty-first century. Today, the space industry is taking on an increased leadership and innovation role in both space access and exploration. The growth of commercial space over the past decades offers a potential new paradigm for space exploration – one in which industry transitions from supplier to partner. However, many questions remain. This book seeks to bring to light these questions, which span from the most seemingly consequential: how will humanity explore the Moon and Mars? - to the most basic: what is commercial space? To further develop the historical context of commercial space, and thereby better inform decision-making at NASA in the future, this volume examines a broad range of questions related to the history of commercial space operations, including but not limited to: how has the concept of ‘commercial space’ evolved in different fields and disciplines? What have been the major events and milestones in the emergence and evolution of commercial space activities in the USA and internationally? How has the US Government assisted or impeded the emergence and evolution of commercial space activities? Providing contributions from a range of different disciplines and backgrounds, the authors of this volume offer valuable insights for scholars researching the history of space and space policy, as well as decision-makers working at NASA or within the wider space industry. Foreword: Promoting Innovation in the Space Sector Preface Contents Notes on Contributors List of Figures List of Tables Part I: Frameworks Chapter 1: What Is Commercial Space? Introduction Historical Perspectives Cognitive Constructs Attempted Definitions Levels of Analysis Organizational Change Motors Characteristics of Evolutionary Markets Evolution Model Forces Conclusion: Why Is a Definition Important? Chapter 2: Commercial Space, Private Space, Something Else? Analyzing the Historiography of Twenty-First-Century U.S. Spaceflight Introduction What Is Commercial Space? The Earliest Commercial Space Activity: Communication Satellites Space Access and the Commercial Realm Conclusion Chapter 3: Making Space for Commercial Spaceflight: Questioning Futures in a History Museum A New Exhibition for the Museum Establishing the Big Idea and Main Messages of the Exhibition Who? Why? What? Conclusion Part II: Histories Chapter 4: Organizing for Success: The Lessons of Early Commercial Aviation for Commercial Space Organization Regulation and Infrastructure Strategic Use of Subsidies Conclusion Chapter 5: “What were we thinking?” Space Commercialization, 1960–1990 Introduction The Emerging Technology Framework The 1950s–1960s The 1970s–1980s Visions of Success Ecosystem Evolution Expectations Reality Challenges: Beyond the Market Studies Conclusion Chapter 6: Space Commercialization, 1983–1985: What Was Promised, and What Was Delivered (or Not) Introduction SBN, Issue 1, 18 July 1983 Commercializing Launch Services, 1983–1985 Commercial Space Platforms Pharmaceutical Manufacturing and Materials Processing in Space Commercial Global Positioning Systems (GPS) Commercial Remote Sensing Space Tourism Commercial Space Habitats Conclusions: What’s Changed in the Space Business Since 1985? Chapter 7: Pathfinder to Profit: Lessons from the Space Shuttle Era Introduction The Space Shuttle as Commerce Writing About the Space Shuttle Lesson 1: Don’t Invent Your Market Lesson 2: Government Is Your Friend Lesson 3: First Movers Fail Lesson 4: Form Follows Function Lesson 5: Don’t Invent ... Augment Conclusion Chapter 8: The Politics of Commercialization and the Near Collapse of the Landsat Civil Remote Sensing Program, 1978–1992 Introduction Carter’s Call for Commercialization, 1978–1979 The Reagan Administration’s Vision for Landsat Conceptualizing Commercialization: Contacts with COMSAT Calling for Contractors: NOAA’s RFP and Resistance, March–November 1983 Congress Votes Commercialization: Land Remote Sensing Commercialization Act of 1984 Commercialization to Contract: NOAA Takes Landsat to Market, 1984–1985 Commercialization Collapses: EOSAT Contract and Issues: 1986–1989 Conclusion Chapter 9: ESA and the Rise of Commercial Space Introduction Commercial Space Transportation in Europe Historical Overview ESA’s Role in Space Transportation Toward an Increased Commercialization of Space Transportation Leo and Lunar Economy Space Exploration Commercialization Initiative Actions in Support of Commercialization Emergence of Commercial Services Development of Market and Stimulation of Demand for Commercial Services Commercial Low Earth Orbit Services Commercial Applications Enabled by the Space Environments Commercial Lunar Services Moonlight Space Resources Outlook Commercial Space for the Benefit of Society on Earth Introduction Commercial Success Enabled by Existing Space Data and Technology Supporting Start-Ups and Small Business Growth Creating and Testing Space-Empowered Business Models Piloting Commercial Solutions Access to Private Finance Novel Space Capabilities to Develop New Markets Innovative Satellite Communication Solutions Partnership Projects Conclusion Part III: Space Law and Commercial Space Chapter 10: This Historical Fragmentation of US Space Law Introduction Evolution of Fragmentation A Narrative of Fragmentation Fragmenting Forward Consolidation Fragmentation Trends Conclusion Chapter 11: International Law in a Commercial Space ‘World’: Historical Lessons and Future Development The Relevance of Space and Space-Related Technology for Everyday Life The Need for Space Governance: Then ... and Now The Global Space Economy: A Snapshot Reconciling Foundational Space Law Principles with Commercial Space A Further Challenge: The Interrelationship with Cyber Technology Dealing with Legal Challenges Posed by the Development of Space Technology Final Reflections—Finding the Way Forward? Chapter 12: Legal Implications of the Growth of Commercial Space Introduction International Law and Responsibility Generally Space Law A Revolutionary Modification What Is the Appropriate State? What Does Liability Look Like? What Are National Activities? What Is a Non-governmental Entity? States Must Assure Conformity Only with the Outer Space Treaty? Authorization and Continuing Supervision Liability as State of Registry Obliged to Rescue? Treaty Obligations of Private Space Actors When the Things Go Wrong The Law Applying the Law Now Applying the Law to Future Activities Conclusion Part IV: National Space Security and Current Policy Chapter 13: The Evolution of Commercial Space and Its Integration with US Military Space Space Launch Vehicles and Services Commercial Satellite Communications Commercial Remote Sensing Commercial Space Domain Awareness Robotic On-Orbit Satellite Servicing Envisioning the Future Chapter 14: Dual Use of Space Technology: A Challenge or an Opportunity? Space Commercialization in the US After the Cold War Introduction Dual Use and Space Commercialization in the 1980s The End of the Cold War: Conceptual and Operational Changes Under a New Security Environment Discussion and Concluding Remarks Chapter 15: Conclusion Appendix: What Is Commercial Space? Reponses to Ken Davidian’s Opening Chapter Commercial or Not Commercial, Is That the Question? What Is Commercial Space? Consistent and Adaptable Flying Commercial Perfection vs. Progress The Reliability Criteria The “Beyond Lab-Scale” Criteria Final Thought Index