The rights revolution revisited : institutional perspectives on the private enforcement of civil rights in the U.S

The rights revolution in the United States consisted of both sweeping changes in constitutional doctrines and landmark legislative reform, followed by decades of innovative implementation in every branch of the federal government - Congress, agencies, and the courts. In recent years, a growing number of political scientists have sought to integrate studies of the rights revolution into accounts of the contemporary American state. In The Rights Revolution Revisited, a distinguished group of political scientists and legal scholars explore the institutional dynamics, scope, and durability of the rights revolution. By offering an inter-branch analysis of the development of civil rights laws and policies that features the role of private enforcement, this volume enriches our understanding of the rise of the 'civil rights state' and its fate in the current era. Cover......Page 1 Half-title......Page 3 Title page......Page 5 Copyright information......Page 6 Dedication......Page 7 Table of contents......Page 9 List of figures......Page 11 List of tables......Page 12 List of contributors......Page 13 Acknowledgments......Page 19 Part I Introduction......Page 21 1 Reassessing the Rights Revolution......Page 23 Taking Stock......Page 24 The Shift to Private Enforcement of Civil Rights......Page 31 Interbranch Dynamics......Page 35 Litigation and Its Discontents......Page 38 Plan of the Book......Page 41 Part II Implementing the Rights Revolution......Page 45 2 Approaches to Enforcing the Rights Revolution: Private Civil Rights Litigation and the American Bureaucracy......Page 47 Legal versus Administrative Approaches to Civil Rights Policy Enforcement......Page 48 Bureaucratic Mobilization of Private Civil Rights Litigation......Page 51 Administrative Processes......Page 52 Shaping the Law......Page 53 Assisting the Bar......Page 54 Off to the Courts? A Comparison of Fair Employment and Fair Housing Regulation......Page 55 Employment Discrimination Regulation at the EEOC (1964–1972): Paving a Pathway to the Courts......Page 57 Fair Housing Regulation at HUD (1968–1972): Blocking a Private Legal Pathway......Page 60 The Legacy of Administration and Legal Approaches to Civil Rights Regulation......Page 63 3 Mobilizing Rights at the Agency Level: The First Interpretations of Title VII’s Sex Provision......Page 66 Legal Mobilization Framework......Page 68 Methodology......Page 70 Case and Data Selection......Page 71 EEOC Mandate......Page 72 Agency Response......Page 73 Movement Building: Individual Interpretations......Page 75 Movement Building: Delays and Denials Lead to the Formation of NOW......Page 78 The Struggle to Compel Formal Policy Changes......Page 82 The Struggle for Control over Policy Development and Implementation......Page 84 Conclusion: Agency Action and Legal Mobilization......Page 87 4 Motivating Litigants to Enforce Public Goods: Evidence from Employment, Housing, and Voting Discrimination Policy......Page 90 A Theory of Private Litigation of Public Laws......Page 92 Effect of Interest Group Environment on Lawsuit Filing......Page 98 Interest Group Strategies for Civil Rights Lawsuits......Page 103 Employment Discrimination......Page 105 Housing Discrimination......Page 107 Voting Rights......Page 114 Conclusion......Page 118 5 Regulatory Rights: Civil Rights Agencies, Courts, and the Entrenchment of Language Rights......Page 120 Civil Rights Agencies Governing by Guidance......Page 121 Courts and Agencies: Judicial Deference to Guidance’s Impact or Effect......Page 123 Schools: Integrated Remedial Model......Page 126 Workplace: Court Constraints......Page 128 Sociolegal Influences on and of the Law......Page 129 Bilingual Education in the Shadow of the Law......Page 130 Legal and Social Constraints on Workplace Policies......Page 132 Intertwining Hard and Soft Law......Page 133 Regulatory Rights Roller Coaster......Page 134 Persistence of Regulatory Rights......Page 135 Entrenchment of Nondiscrimination......Page 136 Entrenchment of Regulatory Strategies......Page 138 Ongoing Challenges to Regulatory Rights......Page 140 Conclusion......Page 142 6 Sexual Harassment and the Evolving Civil Rights State......Page 143 Controversies......Page 146 Sexual Harassment and the Civil Rights State......Page 148 Phase One: Attacking Sexual Harassment in the Workplace......Page 153 Phase Two: Sexual Harassment Regulation Goes to School......Page 160 Interlude: Disputed Foundations......Page 169 Phase Three: The Obama Initiative......Page 174 Defining “Sexual Harassment” and “Hostile Environment”......Page 175 Procedures for Soliciting, Investigating, and Resolving Complaints......Page 177 Remedial Measures to Minimize the Effects of Sexual Harassment......Page 178 Remaking School Culture......Page 179 Strengthening Internal Compliance Offices......Page 180 Conclusion......Page 184 7 The Civil Rights Template and the Americans with Disabilities Act: A Sociolegal Perspective on the.........Page 187 The Political Legacy of the CRA: The Enduring Bipartisan Appeal of the Civil Rights Template......Page 189 Stretching The Civil Rights Template......Page 193 The “Structural Turn” in Civil Rights Scholarship......Page 194 The Sociolegal Model......Page 197 Disability Access Law and the Policy Legacy of the Civil Rights Template......Page 200 The Ostriches......Page 203 The Recalcitrant Compliers......Page 204 The Symbolic Responders......Page 205 The “Beyond Compliance” Responders......Page 206 The Ad Hoc Service Providers......Page 207 The Seekers......Page 208 Formal Rights Versus Organizational Translations......Page 209 Litigation Makes a Difference, But Its Impact Varies......Page 211 Variation Not Averages......Page 212 An Organizational Turn?......Page 213 Part III Rights and Retrenchment......Page 215 The Rise of Civil Rights Litigation......Page 217 The Reagan Administration......Page 221 Litigation Retrenchment Proposals in Congress......Page 225 The Failure of the Legislative Project of Litigation Retrenchment......Page 229 The Alternative Pathway of Courts......Page 233 The Supreme Court’s Response......Page 234 Why the Court Succeeded Where Republican Presidents and Congress Failed......Page 241 Conclusion......Page 243 9 The Contours of the Supreme Court’s Civil Rights Counterrevolution......Page 244 Early Civil Rights Retrenchment and Reform......Page 246 Getting into Court......Page 255 Proving Employment Discrimination......Page 263 Harassment and the Hostile Workplace Doctrine......Page 268 Retaliating against Retaliation......Page 274 The Fate of Disparate Impact......Page 282 Assessing the Supreme Court’s Counterrevolution......Page 285 10 Constraining Aid, Retrenching Access: Legal Services after the Rights Revolution......Page 287 The Origins of Legal Aid......Page 291 The Legal Services Corporation and the Politics of Government-Sponsored Legal Aid......Page 294 “Defunding” and the Beginnings of Political Backlash......Page 299 Shifting the Focus: From Defunding to Legal Procedural Restrictions......Page 303 Privatizing Enforcement Further......Page 308 Part IV The Future of the Rights Revolution......Page 313 11 Rationalizing Rights: Political Control of Litigation......Page 315 The Trouble with Litigation: The Calibration Challenge......Page 318 More Trouble with Litigation: (Non-)Coordination and Legislative (In-)Fidelity......Page 321 The Failure of the Usual “Litigation Reforms”......Page 325 The Agency “Gatekeeper” Alternative......Page 331 Agency Gatekeeping in Action: Rethinking Job Discrimination Regulation......Page 334 Conclusion......Page 340 The Rights Revolution in an Era of Deepening Polarization......Page 342 Advancing the Rights Revolution......Page 354 Promoting Synergies Between Agency and Private Enforcement of Civil Rights......Page 358 Improving Access to Justice......Page 361 Bringing the People Back In......Page 363 Books and Articles......Page 369 Index......Page 395 The Rights Revolution In The United States Consisted Of Both Sweeping Changes In Constitutional Doctrines And Landmark Legislative Reform, Followed By Decades Of Innovative Implementation In Every Branch Of The Federal Government - Congress, Agencies, And The Courts. In Recent Years, A Growing Number Of Political Scientists Have Sought To Integrate Studies Of The Rights Revolution Into Accounts Of The Contemporary American State. [this Book Explores] The Institutional Dynamics, Scope, And Durability Of The Rights Revolution. By Offering An Inter-branch Analysis Of The Development Of Civil Rights Laws And Policies That Features The Role Of Private Enforcement, This Volume Enriches Our Understanding Of The Rise Of The 'civil Rights State' And Its Fate In The Current Era.-- Reassess The Rights Revolution / Lynda G. Dodd -- Approaches To Enforcing The Rights Revolution : Private Civil Rights Litigation And The American Bureaucracy -- Mobilizing Rights At The Agency Level : The First Interpretations Of Title Vii's Sex Provision / Jennifer Woodward -- Motivating Litigants To Enforce Public Goods : Evidence From Employment, Housing, And Voting Discrimination Policy / Paul Gardner -- Regulatory Rights : Civil Rights Agencies, Courts, And The Entrenchment Of Language Rights / Ming Hsu Chen -- Sexual Harassment And The Evolving Civil Rights State / R. Shep Melnick -- The Civil Rights Template And The Americans With Disabilities Act : A Sociological Perspective On The Promise And Limits Of Individual Rights / Thomas F. Burke And Jeb Barnes -- Retrenching Civil Rights Litigation : Why The Court Succeeded Where Congress Failed / Stephen B. Burbank And Sean Farhang -- The Contours Of The Supreme Court's Civil Rights Counterrevolution / Lynda G. Dodd -- Constraining Aid, Retrenching Access : Legal Services After The Rights Revolution / Sarah Staszak -- Rationalizing Rights : Political Control Of Litigation / David Freeman Engstrom -- The Future Of Private Enforcement Of Civil Rights / Lynda G. Dodd. Edited By Lynda G. Dodd. Includes Bibliographical References (pages 349-374) And Index. The rights revolution in the United States consisted of both sweeping changes in constitutional doctrines and landmark legislative reform, followed by decades of innovative implementation in every branch of the federal government - Congress, agencies, and the courts. In recent years, a growing number of political scientists have sought to integrate studies of the rights revolution into accounts of the contemporary American state. In this book, a distinguished group of political scientists and legal scholars explore the institutional dynamics, scope, and durability of the rights revolution. By offering an inter-branch analysis of the development of civil rights laws and policies that features the role of private enforcement, this volume enriches our understanding of the rise of the 'civil rights state' and its fate in the current era