The psychology of police deadly force encounters : science, practice, and policy

Recent events have highlighted both professional and public interest in the use of force by police, especially those involving officer-involved shootings. The Psychology of Police Deadly Force Encounters: Science, Practice, Policy is the first book to comprehensively review the scientific literature in neuropsychology, cognition, personality, and criminology as they relate to the mindset of an officer before, during, and after a deadly force incident. Chapter topics also illustrate practical applications of deadly force psychology to agency policy, training curricula, internal and legal investigation of cases, administrative and disciplinary measures, criminal prosecution, civil litigation, legal strategy, clinical services for officers and their families, and community relations, including an unflinching discussion of race and police use of force. The Psychology of Police Deadly Force Encounters presents an authoritative and practical guide for law enforcement managers, supervisors, trainers, investigators, lawyers, mental health clinicians, and police officers who may find themselves involved with a use of force or deadly force incident and need a clear roadmap for the complex journey ahead. THE PSYCHOLOGY OF POLICE DEADLY FORCE ENCOUNTERS ABOUT THE AUTHOR FOREWORD PREFACE BOOKS BY LAURENCE MILLER, PhD CONTENTS THE PSYCHOLOGY OF POLICE DEADLY FORCE ENCOUNTERS Part I DEADLY FORCE: FACTS AND FACTORS Chapter 1 OFFICER-INVOLVED SHOOTINGS AND DEADLY FORCE PATROL POLICING POLICE USE OF FORCE Police Attitudes Toward Use of Force OFFICER-INVOLVED SHOOTING Rates of Officer-Involved Shooting and other Use of Force Officers Ambushed and Killed Not Shooting: Officer Hesitates or Refrains What Is An “Armed” Suspect and What Is “Deadly” Force? Reasonable Force: A Reasonable Standard? Court Decisions on Reasonable Force Criteria for the Use of Deadly Force CONTINUUM OF FORCE HOW MUCH FORCE? Accuracy of Shooting SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Chapter 2 FACTORS MOST LIKELY TO LEAD TO A DEADLY FORCE ENCOUNTER ENCOUNTER (SITUATIONAL) CHARACTERISTICS Low Information High-Speed Foot Chase or Automobile Pursuit Split-Second Syndrome, Mistake-of-Fact Shootings, and Bunch Shootings Deadly Force Used Against a Suspect Who Is Already Surrendering Officer Draws or Reholsters a Gun While Handcuffing a Suspect Use of Deadly Force to Prevent Subject’s Own Suicide Contact is Officer-Initiated, Not Citizen-Initiated Presence of Bystanders, Including Citizens and/or Other Officers Suspect Possesses A Weapon Or Object That Can Be Used As A Weapon Availability/Unavailability of Less-Lethal Weapons Arrest CITIZEN DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS Race—Ethnicity Social Class Sex Age CITIZEN BEHAVIORAL CHARACTERISTICS Suspect Resists Command Given by Police Officer Suspect Shows Hostile Demeanor or Overly Aggressive Behavior Toward Officers Suspect Displays Suspicious or Threatening Behavior Citizen-Citizen Conflict Suspect is Intoxicated Suspect is Mentally Ill SUICIDE BY COP Suicide by Cop: Facts and Circumstances Suicide by Cop: Patterns and Motives Suicide by Cop: Police Response and Officer Reactions SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Chapter 3 POLICE OFFICER FACTORS IN THE USE OF FORCE AND DEADLY FORCE OFFICER DEMOGRAPHICS Officer Race/Ethnicity Officer Sex Officer Age and Experience Officer Education Level TYPES OF OFFICER MISCONDUCT Corrupt Cops Predicting Officer Misconduct OFFICER MISCONDUCT, USE OF FORCE, AND DEADLY FORCE Abuse of Authority Escalates to Deadly Confrontation Police Retaliate Against a Suspect for Endangering Officers or for Showing Contempt of Cop Improper Vehicle Operation Inadequate Training and Supervision of Officers Maintaining a Code of Silence in Failing to Report Peers’ Misconduct Burnout and the Use of Force WHY DO POLICE OFFICERS MISBEHAVE? INDIVIDUAL/PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS ATTITUDES PERSONALITY: TRAITS, TYPES AND DISORDERS Police Personality Typologies: The Big Five Model U.S. Department of Justice Psychological Model Police Psychiatrist Typology Police Personalities: Commonalities and Interactions Authoritative vs. Authoritarian: Andy vs. Barney PERSONALITY DISORDERS Borderline Personality Disorder Narcissistic Personality Disorder Antisocial Personality Disorder Avoidant Personality Disorder Dependent Personality Disorder Historic Personality Disorder Paranoid Personality Disorder Schizoid Personality Disorder POSITIVE QUALITIES AND TRAITS ORGANIZATION FACTORS: LAW ENFORCEMENT CULTURE Administrative and Departmental Factors Training and Supervision Issues Effective Policing: Proactive, Aggressive, or Abusive? SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Part II DEADLY FORCE: BRAIN AND BEHAVIOR Chapter 4 DEADLY FORCE COGNITION I: PERCEPTION THE BRAIN’S EMERGENCY RESPONSE SYSTEM PERCEPTUAL, COGNITIVE, AND BEHAVIORAL DISTORTIONS DURING AN OIS/DFE TIME ATTENTION, CONCENTRATION, AND PERCEPTION Attention and the Brain Dimenstions of Attention Attention and Perception in Critical DFE Scenarios RELATIONSHIPS AMONG ATTENTIONAL, PERCEPTUAL, AND COGNITIVE PHENOMENA IN DEADLY FORCE ENCOUNTERS DISSOCIATION AND AUTOMATIC RESPONDING Dimensions of Automaticity Automatic Responding and the Brain RECOGNITION-PRIMED DECISION MAKING SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Chapter 5 DEADLY FORCE COGNITION II: ACTION LEARNING, TRAINING, MEMORY, AND ACTION TO SHOOT OR NOT TO SHOOT: COGNITION AND ACTION Neuropsychology of Action and Reaction Reaction Time and Deadly Force Unintentional Discharges Shoot/Don’t Shoot Research Stop Shooting Stop Shooting, by the Numbers: The Cognitive Psychology of DFEs Individual Differences in Shooting Control: Working Memory Capacity TO SHOOT OR NOT TO SHOOT: STRESS AND EMOTION Stress and Shooting Performance: Ego Depletion Optimum Arousal Level, Threat Magnification, and Shooting Accuracy SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Chapter 6 DEADLY FORCE COGNITION III: MEMORY TYPES OF MEMORY Short- and Long-Term Memory Verbal and Visuospatial Memory Procedural and Declarative Memory Semantic and Episodic Memory Working and Implicit Memory STAGES OF LEARNING AND MEMORY Input: Pay Attention Consolidation: If It Feels Good or Bad, Remember It Storage: The More You Use It, the Better It Gets Retrieval: Come Back to Me Motor Memory: An Exception? STRESS AND MEMORY Memory Distortions Associated with an OIS/DFE Stress, Arousal, and Memory SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Part III DEADLY FORCE: PRACTICE AND POLICY Chapter 7 POLICE DEADLY FORCE AND RACE POLICE RACIAL BIAS: THE “FERGUSON EFFECT” AND BEYOND IS RACISM ENDEMIC TO POLICING? POLICE USE OF FORCE AND RACE FACTORS RELATED TO FORCE, DEALY FORCE, AND RACE Neighborhood Variables and Officer Race Demographic Variables RESEARCH ON RACIAL BIAS IN POLICE SHOOTINGS Shoot/Don’t Shoot and Race Cognitive Heuristics and Implicit Biases POLICE SHOOTING BIAS AND THE BRAIN Brain-Based Bias? Police Training and Racial Bias: Upside Police Training and Racial Bias: Downside SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Chapter 8 DEADLY FORCE ENCOUNTERS: PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS PSYCHOLOGICAL AFTEREFFECTS OF AN OIS/DFE Stages of Post-OIS Psychological Response Individual and Incident-Specific Factors in Post-OIS Response Situational Factors Responses of Supervisors and Peers OFFICER REACTIONS TO A CONTESTED OIS/DFE INCIDENT PSYCHOLOGICAL INTERVENTION STRATEGIES FOR OFFICER-INVOLVED SHOOTINGS Officer-Involved Shooting: On-Scene Response On-Scene Psychological Assessment and Intervention Follow-Up Psychological Services in an Officer-Involved Shooting PSYCHOLOGICAL TREATMENT OF OFFICERS INVOLVED IN AN OIS/DFE Psycholegal Issues The Treatment Process Treatment Guidelines PSYCHOLOGICAL STRATEGIES FOR HELPING OFFICERS DEAL WITH THE STRESS OF AN INTERNAL INVESTIGATION OR LEGAL ACTION Don’t Panic Strategize Ask Your Lawyer Keep A Low Profile Work the Case Don’t Lie Have a Plan B SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Chapter 9 DEADLY FORCE ENCOUNTERS: LEGAL CONSEQUENCES POSSIBLE CONSEQUENCES OF A CONTESTED OIS/DFE Internal Affairs or Outside Agency Investigation Criminal Prosecution Civil Lawsuit FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT OF POLICE OFFICERS IN CONTESTED DEADLY FORCE CASES Forensic versus Clinical Evaluations Taking the Case Evaluation Setting Evaluation and Report Components MALINGERING Description and Prevalence of Malingering in Psychological Evaluations What is Malingered in an OIS/DFE Case? Indicators of Malingering in OIS/DFE Cases THE FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGICAL EVALUATION: RECOMMENDATIONS FOR OFFICERS ON THE SPOT: TESTIFYING IN COURT FOR POLICE OFFICER DEFENDANTS IN OIS/DFE CASES Preparing for Testimony On the Stand Cross-Examination Tactics General Impression SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS BIBLIOGRAPHY INDEX "The Psychology of Police Deadly Force Encounters: Science, Practice, and Police is a fascinating look into the reality of police work. The author integrates noted theories into a "street-wise" understanding of being a police officer. The focus of this book is on the use of deadly force by officers-a topic of considerable importance. The author discusses the psychosocial aspects of deadly force use, stemming from the individual officer, the situation, organizational influences, and the police culture. Expanding further into social issues, the controversial topic of race and use of deadly force is discussed. This depiction looks at both sides-that of racial victimization and that of the police-which helps to provide a rather unique perspective on this important issue. Of interest, the author breaks down the different dimensions of cognition as a factor in decision making among police, including the perception of the situation, the action taken depending on that perception, and the role of present and past memory. This will make for a useful training topic to alert officers to the cognitive processes that go into deadly force use-processes that they have the control to change to make a better decision. Next, the book delves into the biological factors that may be involved in police decision making-again where deadly force is involved. The various negative psychological impacts that a deadly force situation may bring about are identified and explained. This book will be useful as a tool for both law enforcement practitioners and researchers to better understand the intricacies of deadly force by the police. For researchers, the book has a multitude of references available for further exploration. It will prove to be a useful guide and reference volume for police managers and supervisors, mental health clinicians, investigators, attorneys, judges, law enforcement educators and trainers, rank and file police officers, including expert witnesses"-- Provided by publisher "The Psychology of Police Deadly Force Encounters: Science, Practice, and Police is a fascinating look into the reality of police work. The author integrates noted theories into a "street-wise" understanding of being a police officer. The focus of this book is on the use of deadly force by officers-a topic of considerable importance. The author discusses the psychosocial aspects of deadly force use, stemming from the individual officer, the situation, organizational influences, and the police culture. Expanding further into social issues, the controversial topic of race and use of deadly force is discussed. This depiction looks at both sides-that of racial victimization and that of the police-which helps to provide a rather unique perspective on this important issue. Of interest, the author breaks down the different dimensions of cognition as a factor in decision making among police, including the perception of the situation, the action taken depending on that perception, and the ro le of present and past memory. This will make for a useful training topic to alert officers to the cognitive processes that go into deadly force use-processes that they have the control to change to make a better decision. Next, the book delves into the biological factors that may be involved in police decision making-again where deadly force is involved. The various negative psychological impacts that a deadly force situation may bring about are identified and explained. This book will be useful as a tool for both law enforcement practitioners and researchers to better understand the intricacies of deadly force by the police. For researchers, the book has a multitude of references available for further exploration. It will prove to be a useful guide and reference volume for police managers and supervisors, mental health clinicians, investigators, attorneys, judges, law enforcement educators and trainers, rank and file police officers, including expert witnessesn, and the ro