The Power of Ritual in Prehistory : Secret Societies and Origins of Social Complexity

La 4e de couverture indique : "The Power of Ritual in Prehistory' is the first book in nearly a century to deal with traditional secret societies from a comparative perspective and the first from an archaeological viewpoint. Providing a clear definition, as well as the material signatures, of ethnographic secret societies, Brian Hayden demonstrates how they worked, what motivated their organizers, and what tactics they used to obtain what they wanted. He shows that far from working for the welfare of their communities, traditional secret societies emerged as predatory organizations operated for the benefit of their own members. Moreover, and contrary to the prevailing ideas that prehistoric rituals were used to integrate communities, Hayden demonstrates how traditional secret societies created divisiveness and inequalities. They were one of the key tools for increasing political control leading to chiefdoms, states, and world religions. Hayden's conclusions will be eye-opening, not only for archaeologists, but also for anthropologists, political scientists, and scholars of religion." The Power of Ritual in Prehistory: Secret Societies and Origins of Social Complexity 4 Contents 8 List of Figures 9 Preface and Acknowledgments 12 1 The Secret 14 WHY ARE SECRET SOCIETIES IMPORTANT? 17 WHAT IS THE SECRET? 20 BEHIND THE SECRET DOOR: A DEFINITION 20 TRIBAL INITIATIONS, SOCIAL ORGANIZATIONS, ORIGINS, AND GRAY AREAS 21 ORIGINS 23 CLASSIFICATIONS 24 GENERAL CONTEXTS 26 MOTIVATIONS 27 KEY ISSUES 31 Social Integration vs. Competition and Division 31 The Power of Belief vs. the Power of Power 31 The Use of Terror and Human Sacrifi ce 34 Roles in Emerging Complexity 35 Antiquity 35 Identifying Secret Societies Archaeologically 35 How to Defi ne Secret Societies or Variants 36 Auxiliary Characteristics 36 HOW TO USE THIS BOOK 39 Part I: The New World 42 2 The Complex Hunter/Gatherers of the American Northwest 44 INTRODUCTION 44 Similarities with California 46 Origins 48 ETHNOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS 56 Core Features 56 Motives and Dynamics 56 Wealth Acquisition (see also “Membership Fees”) 57 Political Connections 58 Tactics 58 Ideology and Control of Esoteric Knowledge 58 Benefits and Threats to Community Well- being 60 Exclusiveness and Ranking 62 Membership Fees 64 Public Displays of Power and Wealth 65 Sacred Ecstatic Experiences 68 Enforcement 69 Cannibalism 72 Material Aspects 72 Paraphernalia 72 Secret Society Structures and Settlement Patterns 75 Village Locations 75 Remote Locations 77 Burials 81 Cross-cutting Kinship and Community Relationships (Regional Organizations) 81 Kin Groups 81 Regional Networks 82 Initiate Marking 83 Power Animals 83 Number of Societies in Communities 84 Number of Members, Proportion of Population 85 Sex 85 Age of Initiates 86 Feasts 87 Frequency 87 3 California 89 INTRODUCTION 89 General Kuksu Characteristics 91 Age, Origin, and Dynamics of Cults 94 ETHNOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS 102 Core Features 102 Motives and Dynamics 102 Sources of Wealth 103 Political Connections 104 Tactics 105 Ideology 105 Esoteric Knowledge 107 Conferring of the “Shaman” Title on All Members: The Emergence of Priestly Roles 108 Benefits and Threats to the Community 109 Exclusivity and Ranking 110 Offi ces and Roles 111 Membership Fees 112 Public Displays of Power and Wealth 113 Sacred Ecstatic Experiences 115 Enforcement 117 Cannibalism and Human Sacrifi ce 118 Material Aspects 118 Paraphernalia 118 Structures and Activity Locations 120 Southern California 120 Central and Northern California 121 Burials 125 Marking of Initiates 128 Power Animals 128 Number of Societies in Communities 129 Number of Members and Proportion of Population 129 Sex 130 Age of Initiates 131 Feasting 132 Frequency of Events 132 4 The American Southwest and Mesoamerica 134 INTRODUCTION 134 Origins 137 Explanatory Models 138 ETHNOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS 138 Core Features 138 Motives and Dynamics 138 Sources of Wealth 139 Relation to Politics 140 Tactics 141 Ideology 141 Benefi ts and Threats to Communities 143 Exclusivity 143 Hierarchies 144 Roles 144 Public Displays 144 Sacred Ecstatic Experiences 145 Enforcement 145 Material Aspects 146 Paraphernalia 146 Structures and Ritual Landscapes 147 Cross-cutting Kinship and Regional Organization 151 Power Animals 151 Number of Societies 151 Proportion of Population 152 Sex 153 Age and Frequency 153 Feasts 154 MESOAMERICA: COFRADIAS AND THE CARGO 154 Caves 155 5 Plains Secret Societies 157 INTRODUCTION 157 General Characteristics of Plains Societies 157 ETHNOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS 164 Motives and Dynamics 164 Political Connections 165 Wealth Acquisition 166 Tactics 167 Ideology 167 Esoteric Knowledge and Power 168 Conferring of the “Shaman” Title 170 Benefits and Threats to the Community 170 Exclusiveness 172 Offices and Roles 173 Membership Fees 174 Public Displays 176 Sacred Ecstatic Experiences 178 Enforcement 179 Material Aspects 180 Paraphernalia 180 Secret Society Structures and Activity Locations 181 Caves 183 Burials 183 Cross-cutting of Kinship Groups 183 Regional Organization 184 Power Animals and Regional Art Motifs 184 Number of Societies 185 Proportion of Population and Numbers of Members 186 Sex 187 Age of Initiates 188 Feasts 189 Frequency of Events 189 6 The Eastern Woodlands and Others 191 THE MIDEWIWIN “SOCIETY OF SHAMANS,” AKA THE “GRAND MEDICINE SOCIETY” 191 Introduction 191 Core Features 193 Motives and Dynamics 193 Wealth Acquisition 193 Political Connections 193 Tactics 194 Ideology and Esoteric Knowledge 194 Benefits and Threats to Communities 194 Exclusive Membership, Roles, Fees, and Hierarchies 195 Public Displays of Power and Wealth 195 Sacred Ecstatic Experiences, Human Sacrifi ce, and Cannibalism 197 Enforcement 197 Material Aspects 197 Paraphernalia 197 Structures and Activity Locations 197 Burials 199 Cross-cutting Kinship 199 Regional Organization 199 Power Animals 200 Number of Societies 200 Proportion of Population and Numbers of Members 200 Sex 200 Age of Initiates 200 Feasting 201 Frequency of Major Ceremonies 201 ALASKA 201 Part II: The Old World 204 7 Oceania 206 AUSTRALIA 206 POLYNESIA 208 THE AINU 209 MELANESIA: INTRODUCTION 210 Secret societies or not? 210 Characteristics and Distribution 213 ETHNOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS 223 Core Features 223 Motives and Dynamics 223 Sources of Wealth 224 Political Connections 226 Tactics 227 Ideology 227 Esoteric Knowledge 228 Exclusivity 228 Initiation Costs 229 Hierarchies 230 Community Benefits or Threats 231 Public Displays of Power and Wealth 232 Sacred Ecstatic Experiences 233 Enforcement 233 Human Sacrifices and Cannibalism 235 Material Aspects 235 Paraphernalia 235 Structures and Activity Areas 237 Dancing Grounds 240 Caves 243 Treatment of the Dead 244 Cross-cutting Kinship and Regional Organization 246 Power Animals and Regional Art Styles 248 Number of Societies 249 Proportion of Population 249 Age 249 Sex 250 Feasts 250 Frequency 251 8 Chiefdoms in Central Africa 252 INTRODUCTION TO CHIEFLY SECRET SOCIETIES 252 Dynamics and Origins 253 Differences with Other Secret Societies 254 Core Features 254 Motives 254 Tactics 255 Ideology 255 Benefits or Threats to Communities 255 Ranks and Roles 255 Public Displays 255 Sacred Ecstatic Experiences 256 Enforcement 256 Cannibalism 256 Material Aspects 256 Paraphernalia 256 Structures 256 Cross-cutting Kinship and Regional Organization 257 Power Animals 257 Proportion of Population 257 Sex 257 Age 257 Feasts 257 SUMMARY 258 9 West Africa 259 INTRODUCTION 259 ETHNOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS 269 Core Features 269 Motives and Dynamics 269 Sources of Wealth 270 Political Connections 272 Tactics 273 Ideology 273 Community Benefits and Threats 274 Esoteric Knowledge 275 Untitled 275 Initiation Costs 276 Hierarchies and Roles 277 Public Display of Powers and Wealth 278 Sacred Ecstatic Experiences 279 Marking Initiates: Scarification 280 Enforcement 280 Human Sacrifice and Cannibalism 281 Material Aspects 282 Paraphernalia 282 Structures and Activity Locations 284 Treatment of the Dead 286 Cross-cutting Kinship Organization 288 Regional Organization 289 Power Animals 291 Number of Societies 292 Proportion of Population 292 Sex 292 Age 293 Feasts 293 Frequency 294 Part III: Implications for Archaeology 296 10 Archaeological Applications 298 MATERIAL PATTERNS 299 Transegalitarian Societies 299 Surpluses 299 Special Structures Used for Rituals within or near Communities 299 Remote Locations 300 Numbers of Special Structures 301 Ritual Paraphernalia 301 Power Animal Iconography 303 Interaction Spheres 303 Art Traditions 304 Feasting 304 Human Sacrifice and Cannibalism 304 Esoteric Knowledge 305 Ecstatic States 305 Age and Sex 305 Special Burials 306 CASE STUDIES 307 Europe and the Near East 307 The Middle Paleolithic 307 The Upper Paleolithic 307 European Neolithic and Bronze Ages 315 The Near East 319 The Late Epipaleolithic 319 Prepottery Neolithic 321 The Egalitarian Question 328 Violence 328 Lime Plaster Floors and Destruction 329 Causal Models 330 The Role of Ritual 331 Southwestern United States 332 Caves 333 Shrines 334 Great Houses 335 Causal Models 335 California and the Northwest Coast 336 Eastern United States 338 Mesoamerica 338 South America 340 The Far East and Micronesia 345 SUMMARY 347 11 Conclusions 349 COMMON SOCIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL PATTERNS 350 Political Influence 350 Terror 350 Use of Ecstasy 351 Binding Members 352 Exclusivity and Cross-cutting Social Group 353 Motives and the Promotion of Self-interests 353 IDEOLOGICAL PATTERNS 353 Acquiescence 356 Morality of Leaders as Anti-social or Above Norms 357 ECONOMIC PATTERNS: SOURCES OF SUPPORT 358 OTHER FUNDAMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS 359 Advertising 359 Iconography 360 DYNAMICS AND CULTURAL CHANGE 360 Regional Networks 361 GENERAL CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH SECRET SOCIETIES DEVELOPED AND SPREAD 361 MAJOR THEORETICAL ISSUES 364 The Power of Belief and Ritual 364 Communitarian versus Aggrandizer Models 367 STEPPING STONES TO ESTABLISHING INSTITUTIONAL RELIGIONS? 370 STEPPING STONES TO ESTABLISHING STATE-LEVEL POLITICAL SYSTEMS? 371 Constraints 372 Regional Organization 373 Archaeological Instances 375 Subsequent Developments 375 PILGRIMAGE MODELS FOR RITUAL CENTERS 376 Types of Pilgrimages 377 Networking and Mutual Help Relationships 377 Creation of Tribal or Group Identity 378 Territorial Maintenance 378 Acquisition of Power 379 Livelihood 379 General Economic Benefi ts 380 Discussion 381 Amphictyonies 383 CONCLUSIONS 384 References 386 Index 410 The Power of Ritual in Prehistory is the first book in nearly a century to deal with traditional secret societies from a comparative perspective and the first from an archaeological viewpoint. Providing a clear definition, as well as the material signatures, of ethnographic secret societies, Brian Hayden demonstrates how they worked, what motivated their organizers, and what tactics they used to obtain what they wanted. He shows that far from working for the welfare of their communities, traditional secret societies emerged as predatory organizations operated for the benefit of their own members. Moreover, and contrary to the prevailing ideas that prehistoric rituals were used to integrate communities, Hayden demonstrates how traditional secret societies created divisiveness and inequalities. They were one of the key tools for increasing political control leading to chiefdoms, states, and world religions. Hayden's conclusions will be eye-opening, not only for archaeologists, but also for anthropologists, political scientists, and scholars of religion. -- From dust jacket