The Portuguese Massacre of Wiriyamu in Colonial Mozambique, 1964–2013

## Preface xvii colonial war narrative. The remainder has been used to evaluate Portugal's state of knowledge and its take on the colonial war in the district surrounding Wiriyamu. This evaluation is to be found in the review of the literature on Portuguese primary sources. Apropos Portuguese archival documents, these are identified in the footnotes only by their classification, sufficient to track them down in the archives. The Bibliography provides a more complete citation of each artifact either used in or consulted for the book. The collection of articles outlined in the Bibliography serves two purposes. One set of ninety-six items scooped from Africa Report, augmented by a few from Jeune Afrique, Africa Today, Presénce Africaine, and Lusotopie, helped lay the groundwork for the text in the nationalist war before 1970, which is presented here with very few footnotes to allow the narrative to flow. The collection of two hundred and twenty articles from The London Times and The Sunday London Times aided by a stack of thirty primary sources from the British Foreign and Commonwealth Office went to chisel the narrative on the revelation and its Portuguese denial. Titles of news bulletins and articles from Africa Report are omitted in the footnotes, but they are recorded in the Bibliography under a separate heading, sufficient for cross-referencing. Electronically accessible sources are cumbersome word-hoggers. They appear once in the footnotes; the Bibliography omits them, unless they are viewed as crucial to the text. To save valuable footprint, inordinately long URLs (Uniform Resource Locators) have been contracted using TinyURL.com online software. One table on Tete's demographics proved too lengthy to include and appears posted at http://tinyurl.com/q4yn52t. The Bibliography gives details on the eighteen tape-recorded interviews and ninetysix recorded fieldnotes, but excludes one hundred and two data sources recorded in annotated fragments during fieldwork. Two hundred and sixteen carefully curated respondents supplied data for the twelve tables wedged between the text and the Bibliography, while qualitative data for the study came from an additional pool of thirty informants. Tape-recorded oral sources are quoted fully in the footnotes once, and thereafter shortened to last name, interview, and date held. Of the oral sources culled, fifteen undergird the narrative on Wiriyamu's military context in Tete. The anatomy of that day's massacre was pieced together from details provided by twenty-four respondents, supported by a group of fact-checkers who worked closely with the two hundred and sixteen affected families already mentioned. One hundred and seven of these respondents came from Chaworha, thirty from Wiriyamu, thirty from Juawu, fourteen from Riachu, and thirty-five from Djemusse. Data on the Church in Tete between 1970 and 1974 and its role in the story came from two sources: thirty documents of synthetic value lodged in the Burgos archives, and oral evidence provided by missionaries and others involved in Wiriyamu's trajectory as it reached the pages of The Times of London. Cover Half-title Title Copyright Dedication Contents Foreword Preface The road map The limits of this endeavor Acknowledgments List of Illustrations and Maps 1. Introduction Exile politics and diplomacy The framing of the narrative 2. Literature Review Written sources and their limits The war and Wiriyamu in Portuguese sources Church and other public records Affirmative literature on the massacres Wiriyamu from two perspectives Texts on denial and doubts Fictional narratives: Two works examined 3. Oral Research The trial run The false start The work on site Interviews off site The final push 4. The Nationalist Struggle and the Colonial War in Mozambique Geography, war, and Wiriyamu Formative leadership Nationalist diplomacy, internal dissent, and deaths Portuguese counter-insurgency and the changing of the guard The role of water in Tete’s warfare Wiriyamu at a point of no return 5. The Church in Tete Bishop Resende and the shortage of priests Portugalization and its impact on the Church Church–State relations in Unkanha The conflict over burials FRELIMO’s courtship of priests 6. The Church and Mass Violence Missionaries and mass violence Parish responses to the liberation struggle The missionary protest against silence The Burgos priests and the massacre at Mucumbura Portuguese reprisals Mucumbura priests are sent to prison 7. The Wiriyamu Narrative: Genesis and Revelation The origins of the Wiriyamu story Wiriyamu travels overseas The labyrinth behind the publication 8. Portuguese Reaction to the Public Narrative Of denials and dismissals The response from The London Times and The Sunday Times group Understanding the Portuguese volte-face 9. Wiriyamu before the Massacre Wiriyamu and the destroyers The Wiriyamu triangle in structural perspective Creeks, rivers, and puddles The spirit world and the rainmakers Village life Cattle barons and the poor The final days 10. The Anatomy of the Wiriyamu Massacre Sadism and fire at Chaworha Juawu’s swift disappearance Wiriyamu’s demise and Melo’s act of mercy Djemusse in flames before dark A tally of the numbers killed 11. Conclusion Tables 1. Attesters to Wiriyamu 2. Wiriyamu triangle, population census, 1970–2007 3. Djemusse population census, 1972 estimates 4. Wiriyamu population census, 1972 estimates 5. Juawu population census, 1972 estimates 6. Riachu population census, 1972 estimates 7. Chaworha population census, 1972 estimates 8. List of the dead in Djemusse, December 16, 1972 9. List of the dead in Wiriyamu, December 16, 1972 10. List of the dead in Juawu, December 16, 1972 11. List of the dead in Chaworha, December 16, 1972 12. List of the dead in the triangle, unspecified locations, December 16, 1972 Bibliography Portuguese manuscript collection: Torre do Tombo British manuscript collection: Foreign and Commonwealth Office Frelimo ephemera and Maputo-based oral sources Missionary ephemera, IEME: Instituto Español de Misiones Extranjeras, Madrid Interviews, fieldnotes, and tape recordings Articles, The London Times Articles, The London Sunday Times Articles, Africa Report Books, miscellaneous articles, periodicals, and reports Index WINNER OF THE 2017 MARTIN A. KLEIN PRIZE In his in-depth and compelling study of perhaps the most famous of Portuguese colonial massacres, Mustafah Dhada explores why the massacre took place, what Wiriyamu was like prior to the massacre, how events unfolded, how we came to know about it and what the impact of the massacre was, particularly for the Portuguese empire. Spanning the period from 1964 to 2013 and complete with a foreword from Peter Pringle, this chronologically arranged book covers the liberation war in Mozambique and uses fieldwork, interviews and archival sources to place the massacre firmly in its historical context. The Portuguese Massacre of Wiriyamu in Colonial Mozambique, 1964-2013 is an important text for anyone interested in the 20th-century history of Africa, European colonialism and the modern history of war. In his in-depth and compelling study of perhaps the most famous of perhaps the most famous of Portuguese colonial massacres, Mustafah Dhada explores why the massacre took place, what Wiriyamu was like prior to the massacre, how events unfolded, how we came to know about it, and what the impact of the massacre was, particularly for the Portuguese empire. Spanning the period from 1964 to 2013 and complete with a foreword Peter Pringle, this chronologically-arranged book covers the liberation war in Mozambique and uses fieldwork, interviews, and archival sources to place the massacre firmly in its historical context. The Portuguese Massacre of Wiriyamu in Colonial Mozambique, 1964{u0096}2013 is an important text for anyone interested in the 20th-century history of Africa. European colonialism, and the modern history of war "In his in-depth and compelling study of perhaps the most famous of Portuguese colonial massacres, Mustafah Dhada explores why the massacre took place, what Wiriyamu was like prior to the massacre, how events unfolded, how we came to know about it and what the impact of the massacre was, particularly for the Portuguese empire. Spanning the period from 1964 to 2013 and complete with a foreword from Peter Pringle, this chronologically arranged book covers the liberation war in Mozambique and uses fieldwork, interviews and archival sources to place the massacre firmly in its historical context. The Portuguese Massacre of Wiriyamu in Colonial Mozambique, 1964-2013 is an important text for anyone interested in the 20th-century history of Africa, European colonialism and the modern history of war."--Bloomsbury Publishing.