The Politics of Extremism in South Asia

South Asia is home to a range of extremist groups from the jihadists of Pakistan to the Tamil Tigers of Sri Lanka. In the popular mind, extremism and terrorism are invariably linked to ethnic and religious factors. Yet the dominant history of South Asia is notable for tolerance and co-existence, despite highly plural societies. Deepa Ollapally examines extremist groups in Kashmir, Afghanistan, Northeast India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka to offer a fresh perspective on the causes of extremism. What accounts for its rise in societies not historically predisposed to extremism? What determines the winners and losers in the identity struggles in South Asia? What tips the balance between more moderate versus extremist outcomes? The book argues that politics, inter-state and international relations often play a more important role in the rise of extremism in South Asia than religious identity, poverty, and state repression. Cover......Page 1 Half-title......Page 3 Title......Page 5 Copyright......Page 6 Dedication......Page 7 Contents......Page 9 Acknowledgements......Page 11 Re-examining extremism......Page 15 An alternative explanation......Page 16 Gaps in alternative explanations......Page 18 Filling the gaps: external–internal encounters and mediating identities......Page 21 The state and geopolitical identities......Page 24 Relevance of other external explanations......Page 27 Constructing the argument......Page 28 Some terminology......Page 29 Defining terrorism......Page 30 Contextualizing terrorism and America's role......Page 32 Outline of the chapters......Page 34 Limitations......Page 35 From margin to epicenter: Locations and dislocations......Page 36 Errors of conflation......Page 37 South Asia's distinctiveness......Page 38 The accommodative historical impulses......Page 39 Contact and co-existence at the official level......Page 41 Competing impulses......Page 43 Tolerance and co-worship at the popular level......Page 45 Sufism in Kashmir......Page 48 Antecedents of exclusive identities......Page 51 Institutionalizing differences......Page 52 Unstable secularism in South Asia......Page 54 Competing historical tendencies......Page 55 Political secularism......Page 57 State construction and identity conflict......Page 59 The legacy of Abdul Gaffar Khan......Page 60 The Nehruvian vision......Page 61 Extremist challenges to secular traditions......Page 63 Conclusion......Page 65 3 Afghanistan's changing fortunes......Page 67 Attempts to explain extremism......Page 68 The religious explanation......Page 69 The evolution of the Afghan state......Page 71 Political secularism......Page 72 The rise of Islamism......Page 73 Challenges to secularism......Page 74 A spectrum of nationalisms......Page 76 The "mujahideen" today......Page 77 The Pakistani agenda......Page 78 The Saudi agenda......Page 79 Consolidation of Islamist groups in Pakistan......Page 81 Internal fragmentation......Page 82 The rise of the Taliban......Page 83 The new terrorism......Page 84 The impact of the US military campaign......Page 85 The balance between extremists and moderates......Page 87 Recasting the Afghan identity......Page 88 History repeating......Page 90 Undercutting extremism......Page 91 Attempts to reshape regional geopolitics......Page 92 Regional bridge building and diversification......Page 94 Conclusion......Page 95 4 Pakistan at the crossroads......Page 98 The religious factor......Page 99 Other factors......Page 101 Political secularism and its decline......Page 102 The political evolution of the JI and the JUI......Page 103 The JI-JUI divide......Page 105 Beyond the political arena to violent extremism......Page 108 Constraints on the mainstream political parties......Page 111 The military and religious parties......Page 113 The state and geopolitical identities......Page 114 Legitimizing identities......Page 115 Holding the center......Page 117 Impact of regional and extra-regional geopolitics......Page 118 Dealing with extremists: the military's competing pulls......Page 121 MMA and the war on terrorism......Page 123 Conclusion......Page 125 5 Conflict and contradiction in Kashmir......Page 128 Attempts to explain extremism......Page 129 The religious explanation......Page 131 Kashmiriyat and Secular Traditions......Page 132 Symbolism of the Congress-National Conference Alliance......Page 135 Challenges to Nehru's secular model......Page 137 Political fragmentation in Kashmir and shifting identities......Page 138 External intrusions......Page 140 India's worldview......Page 141 Kashmir and the Indo-Pakistan geopolitical identity struggle......Page 143 Indian dilemmas......Page 144 India's flexible discourse......Page 145 Pakistan's predicament......Page 146 Pakistan's proxy war......Page 148 Dialogue with New Delhi......Page 149 Interference from Pakistan......Page 152 The promise of democratic secularism......Page 153 Pakistan's persisting policy......Page 156 Conclusion......Page 157 6 Sri Lanka's violent spiral......Page 159 The ethno-religious factor......Page 160 Political access and elite manipulation......Page 163 Relative deprivation and state repression......Page 164 Adding geopolitics to the equation......Page 165 Waxing and waning of secularism......Page 167 State sponsorship of communal policies......Page 169 Unholy alliances......Page 170 Fracturing and consolidation of Tamil politics......Page 172 The hardening of Tamil identity and formation of militant groups......Page 173 Ethnic affiliation and strategic purposes......Page 175 Sri Lankan insecurity complex......Page 176 India's strategic dilemma......Page 178 Balancing versus bandwagoning by Sri Lanka......Page 179 Prelude to intervention......Page 181 The Indian intervention......Page 183 Hardline versus moderate outcomes......Page 184 The IPKF episode and breakdown of relations with the LTTE......Page 185 The negotiation path......Page 186 The role of spoilers......Page 188 Conclusion......Page 189 7 Bangladesh: divided politics and geopolitics......Page 191 Common bonds and fragmented identity......Page 192 Moderating tendencies......Page 194 Civil society groups......Page 196 Polarizing tendencies and the role of the state......Page 197 Education sector......Page 198 Deepening Islamicization......Page 199 External environment and geopolitical identity......Page 200 Bangladesh's uncertain geopolitical identity......Page 201 Rise and Fall of India's Political Windfall......Page 203 Decline of political secularism......Page 204 India's geopolitical identity and spillovers in the northeast......Page 206 Assam and Indo-Bangladesh relations......Page 207 Extremism and cross-border issues......Page 210 Changing discourse?......Page 212 The rise of militant Islamist groups......Page 213 Effects of the BNP-Awami League competition......Page 217 The pull of post 9/11 geopolitics......Page 219 Conclusion......Page 221 Internal-external links......Page 223 Evidence from the region......Page 224 Indian exceptionalism......Page 227 Looking ahead......Page 229 Bibliography......Page 233 Index......Page 245 Cover 1 Half-title 3 Title 5 Copyright 6 Dedication 7 Contents 9 Acknowledgements 11 1 Introduction: beyond and before the 9/11 framework 15 Re-examining extremism 15 Explanatory limitations 16 An alternative explanation 16 Gaps in alternative explanations 18 Filling the gaps: external–internal encounters and mediating identities 21 The state and geopolitical identities 24 Relevance of other external explanations 27 Constructing the argument 28 Some terminology 29 Beyond and before the 9/11 framework 30 Defining terrorism 30 Contextualizing terrorism and America's role 32 Outline of the chapters 34 Limitations 35 2 Situating violent conflict in South Asia 36 From margin to epicenter: Locations and dislocations 36 Errors of conflation 37 South Asia's distinctiveness 38 The accommodative historical impulses 39 Contact and co-existence at the official level 41 Competing impulses 43 Tolerance and co-worship at the popular level 45 Sufism in Kashmir 48 Antecedents of exclusive identities 51 Institutionalizing differences 52 Unstable secularism in South Asia 54 Competing historical tendencies 55 Political secularism 57 State construction and identity conflict 59 The legacy of Abdul Gaffar Khan 60 The Nehruvian vision 61 Extremist challenges to secular traditions 63 Conclusion 65 3 Afghanistan's changing fortunes 67 Attempts to explain extremism 68 The religious explanation 69 The evolution of the Afghan state 71 Political secularism 72 The rise of Islamism 73 Challenges to secularism 74 A spectrum of nationalisms 76 The "mujahideen" today 77 The convergence of external interests 78 The Pakistani agenda 78 The Saudi agenda 79 Consolidation of Islamist groups in Pakistan 81 Internal fragmentation 82 The rise of the Taliban 83 The post-Taliban environment 84 The new terrorism 84 The impact of the US military campaign 85 The balance between extremists and moderates 87 Resurgent cross-border Islamism? 88 Recasting the Afghan identity 88 History repeating 90 Undercutting extremism 91 Attempts to reshape regional geopolitics 92 Regional bridge building and diversification 94 Conclusion 95 4 Pakistan at the crossroads 98 Attempts to explain extremism 99 The religious factor 99 Other factors 101 Political secularism and its decline 102 The political evolution of the JI and the JUI 103 The JI-JUI divide 105 Beyond the political arena to violent extremism 108 Shifting political structures and the role of the military 111 Constraints on the mainstream political parties 111 The military and religious parties 113 The state and geopolitical identities 114 Legitimizing identities 115 Holding the center 117 Impact of regional and extra-regional geopolitics 118 Moderate or extremist outcomes 121 Dealing with extremists: the military's competing pulls 121 MMA and the war on terrorism 123 Conclusion 125 5 Conflict and contradiction in Kashmir 128 Attempts to explain extremism 129 The religious explanation 131 Kashmiriyat and Secular Traditions 132 Domestic politics and secularism in India 135 Symbolism of the Congress-National Conference Alliance 135 Challenges to Nehru's secular model 137 Political fragmentation in Kashmir and shifting identities 138 External intrusions 140 Geopolitical identities 141 India's worldview 141 Kashmir and the Indo-Pakistan geopolitical identity struggle 143 Indian dilemmas 144 India's flexible discourse 145 Pakistan's predicament 146 Pakistan's proxy war 148 Dialogue with New Delhi 149 Interference from Pakistan 152 Tilting the balance: moderate and extremist outcomes 153 The promise of democratic secularism 153 Pakistan's persisting policy 156 Conclusion 157 6 Sri Lanka's violent spiral 159 Attempts to explain extremism 160 The ethno-religious factor 160 Political access and elite manipulation 163 Relative deprivation and state repression 164 Adding geopolitics to the equation 165 Domestic structures and political secularism 167 Waxing and waning of secularism 167 State sponsorship of communal policies 169 Unholy alliances 170 Fracturing and consolidation of Tamil politics 172 The hardening of Tamil identity and formation of militant groups 173 Geopolitical identities 175 Ethnic affiliation and strategic purposes 175 Sri Lankan insecurity complex 176 India's strategic dilemma 178 Balancing versus bandwagoning by Sri Lanka 179 Prelude to intervention 181 The Indian intervention 183 Hardline versus moderate outcomes 184 The IPKF episode and breakdown of relations with the LTTE 185 The negotiation path 186 The role of spoilers 188 Conclusion 189 7 Bangladesh: divided politics and geopolitics 191 Common bonds and fragmented identity 192 Moderating tendencies 194 Civil society groups 196 Polarizing tendencies and the role of the state 197 Education sector 198 Deepening Islamicization 199 External environment and geopolitical identity 200 Bangladesh's uncertain geopolitical identity 201 Rise and Fall of India's Political Windfall 203 Decline of political secularism 204 India's geopolitical identity and spillovers in the northeast 206 Assam and Indo-Bangladesh relations 207 Extremism and cross-border issues 210 Changing discourse? 212 Between extremist and moderate outcomes 213 The rise of militant Islamist groups 213 Effects of the BNP-Awami League competition 217 The pull of post 9/11 geopolitics 219 Conclusion 221 8 Conclusion 223 Internal-external links 223 Evidence from the region 224 Indian exceptionalism 227 Looking ahead 229 Bibliography 233 Index 245