The Politicization Of Ethnicity As Source Of Conflict: The Nigerian Situation (globale Gesellschaft Und Internationale Beziehungen)

In view of the explosion of violent conflicts in many parts of the world and the hasty, but prevailing, assumption that ethnicity is the source of these conflicts, this book is encompassed to highlight, describe and examine how ethnicity is politicized in many of these current conflicts. By deploying the instrumentalist approach and the theory of identity and difference in ethnicity, the author identifies the actors involved and depicts how religion is exploited as an instrument of division by reflecting it on the Nigerian situation, exploring the examples of the Jos conflicts and the Warri Crisis within a twenty years period, 1990 to 2010. The Contents The Dynamics of the Politicization of Ethnicity as the Cause of Conflicts in Nigeria Religious Crises: Shedding of Blood, Killings and Terrorism in Godâ#x80;#x99;s Name The Politics of Terror and Islamization Process of Boko Haram Multinational Firms and Conflicts: Failure of Corporate Social Responsibility Case Studies: Introduction of Contemporary Jos Conflicts and Warri Crises Target Groups Lecturers and students of Political Science, Conflict Studies, International Relations, Religious Studies, Ethnology, African Studies, Governance, Migration Studies, Economics and History Employees of International Organizations: United Nations (UN), OECD, the Commonwealth, GIZ, Conflict and Peace NGOs, Religious Institutions The Author Ademola Adediji is a Senior Research Fellow at the Department of International Relations and European Affairs at the University of Cologne Acknowledgements 6 Table of Contents 8 List of Abbreviations 12 1. Introduction 14 A. Assumption and Problem: Ethnicity as the Cause of Conflicts in Africa 16 B. An Overview of the Nigerian Situation 18 C. Significance of the Research Study 21 D. The Structure of the Dissertation 22 E. Methodology 24 Research Methodology 25 Theoretical Basis 27 Variables 28 Comparative Case Studies and Unit of Analysis 29 Nonprobability Sampling: Purposive and Convenience Sampling Designs 31 Data Collection: Experiences during Field Research 34 On the Warri Crisis 35 On Jos Conflicts 37 Use of Existing Data and Review of Literature 39 Triangulation 40 Instrumentation and its Importance 41 2. The Politicization of Ethnicity: Clarification and Analysis of Key Concepts 43 2.1 General Explanation and Etymological Analysis of the Term ‘Ethnicity’ 43 2.2 The Emergence and Analysis of the Scientific Definition of Ethnicity 48 2.3 Concept Analyses: Distinction of Specific Terminologies about Ethnicity 56 2.3.1 Ethnic Groups 57 2.3.2 Ethnocentrism 64 2.3.3 Race 66 2.3.4 Nation 70 2.3.5 Identity 74 2.3.6 Tribalism 75 2.3.7 Assessment of Ethnicity and Other Relevant Concepts 78 2.4 Politicization: Conceptualization and Clarification of Concept 81 2.4.1 The Study and Definition of Politics 82 2.4.2 The Essence of Power in Politics 87 2.4.3 Politicization: Definition and Explanation of the Concept 92 2.4.3.1 The Concepts of Politicization and Democracy 96 2.4.3.2 The Effects of Politicization in Pluralistic Societies 97 2.4.4 Synthesis of Terminologies: The Politicization of Ethnicity 100 2.4.4.1 The Politicization of Ethnicity: Explanation of its Emergence and Use 101 2.4.4.2 The Politicization of Ethnicity: Definition and Description 106 2.4.4.3 Functions of the Politicization of Ethnicity 111 2.4.5 Intermediate Assessment on Politicization and the Politicization of Ethnicity 113 3. Conceptual Framework: Theoretical Perspectives 118 3.1 Examining the Theory of Ethnicity: The Perspective of Instrumentalism 120 3.2 Ethnicity: A Social Construct 126 3.2.1 The Social Boundaries of Ethnicity 131 3.2.2 Determinants of Ethnic Groups: Ethnic Boundaries and Ethnicity 133 3.2.2.1 Understanding Ethnic Groups as a Culture Bearing Unit 135 3.2.2.2 Examining Ethnic Groups as an Organizational Type 135 3.2.2.3 Analysis of the Boundaries of Ethnic Groups 137 3.2.2.4 The Case of a Poly-Ethnic Social System 141 3.2.2.5 Re-examining the Associations of Identities and Value Standards 145 3.2.2.6 Interdependence of Ethnic Groups 147 3.2.3 The Theoretical Aspect of Identity and Difference in Ethnicity 151 3.2.3.1 Objections to and Illustrations of Ethnicity as the Source of Conflicts 152 A. Cultural Differences, i.e., Ethnicities Are the Cause of Ethnic Conflicts 152 B. Clash of Different Cultures Reflects Ancient, Inherited, Deeply Rooted Oppositions 155 C. Universality of Ethnicity 157 D. Ethnicity Is Ascriptive 158 E. A People Is a Community of Shared Descent 161 F. Ethnic Groups Are Territorial 162 3.2.3.2 Theoretical Basis: The Theory of Identity and Difference in Ethnicity 165 3.2.3.3 Further Theory of Ethnicity: Decision Theory of Identity and Differences 170 A. Social Structures and their Cognitive Representations 171 B. The Politics of Inclusion and Exclusion 172 C. The Economics of Group Size and Social Position 174 3.2.3.4 Relevance of Two Approaches: Instrumentalist and Decision Theories 175 3.2.3.5 Intermediate Assessment: Two Theoretical Models 177 4. Empirical Analysis: The Politicization of Ethnicity as the Cause of Conflicts 182 4.1 Description and Definition of Conflicts 182 4.1.1 Potential and Actual Conflicts: Further Analysis of Conflict Definition 187 4.1.2 Deep-Rooted Conflict: Understanding and Explanation of the Phenomenon 192 4.2 Types of Conflicts as an Essential Field of Study 196 4.2.1 Political Conflict 197 4.2.2 Social Conflict 200 4.2.3 Ethnic Conflict 202 4.2.4 Environmental Conflicts 205 4.2.5. Intermediate Assessment: The Definition, Description and Types of Conflicts 207 4.3 Literature Review: Current Research on the Causes of Conflicts in Nigeria 209 4.3.1 The Experience of Colonialism as the Cause of Conflicts 213 4.3.2 Colonialism: Neocolonialism and Economic Conditions 226 4.4 Multinational Corporations: The Act of Exploitation in Africa 230 4.4.1 Multinational Corporations: Advent and Roles in the 20th and 21st Century 234 4.4.2 Multinational Firms and Conflict: Failure of Social Corporate Responsibility 239 4.5 Resource Curse: The Source of Conflicts 247 4.5.1 The Cause of Conflicts: Examining the Resource Curse/Rentier State Theory 248 4.5.2 Oil Curse as the Cause of Conflicts: The Example of Nigeria 252 4.6 Outbreaks of Conflicts: The Instigation of the Elites 261 4.6.1 The Position of the Elites in Nigeria 262 4.6.2 The Position of Elites in other African Countries 266 4.7 The Genesis of Conflicts: Religious Antagonism as an Important Factor 273 4.7.1 Religions and Religious Interactions in Conflicts 277 4.7.2 Significance of Religion and Religious Conflicts on the African Continent 285 4.7.3 Religious Crises: Shedding of Blood, Killings and Terrorism in God’s Name 289 4.7.4 Proxy Religious Conflicts in Africa 299 4.8 Conclusion of the Current Research on the Causes of Conflicts in Nigeria 305 5. Introduction: The Dynamics of the Politicization of Ethnicity in Nigeria 308 5.1 Instances of the Current Instabilities in Nigeria 311 5.2 The Historical Background of Nigeria 314 5.3 Historical Overview of the Three Largest Ethnic Groups 326 5.3.1 The Hausa-Fulani Ethnic Group 327 5.3.2 The Yoruba Ethnic Group 332 5.3.3 The Igbo Ethnic Group 339 5.4 The Source of Conflicts: Federalism, Military Intervention and Religiosity 345 5.4.1 Federalism in Nigeria 347 5.4.2 Federalism: The Instrument of the Nigerian Military Elites 350 5.4.3. Elites and Federalism: Ethnic Minority and Federal Character Principle 362 5.5 Religious Divide and the Escalation of Conflicts in Nigeria 377 5.5.1 The Genesis of Religious Conflicts in Nigeria 380 5.5.2 Introduction of Sharia: Political Debate, Controversy and Conflicts 385 5.5.2.1 Sharia Controversy: Constitutional Secularism and Human Rights 405 5.5.2.2 Overview: The Politics of Terror and Islamization Process of Boko Haram 418 5.6 Case Studies: Introduction of Contemporary Jos Conflicts and Warri Crises 428 5.6.1 The Example of Politicized Ethnicity: The Jos Conflicts 430 5.6.1.1 The Genesis and Construction of the Indigene/Settler Dichotomy 434 5.6.1.2 The Jos Conflicts and Issues Revolving Around the Indigeneity Controversy 442 5.6.1.3 The 1994 Jos North Local Government Elections: Indigene vs. Settlers 448 5.6.1.4 The Return to Democracy and the Redrawing of Ethnic Boundaries 454 5.6.2 The Example of Politicized Ethnicity: The Warri Crisis 473 5.6.2.1 The Genesis and Dynamics of the Current Itsekiri - Ijaw Ethnic Crisis 477 5.6.2.2 Warri Crisis: The Origin of Militancy and Role of Militant Leaders 487 6. General Conclusion 498 A. Prospects 512 B. Recommendations 515 7. Bibliography 520 Primary Data 520 The Commissions of Inquiry 520 Secondary Literature 521 Internet Publications and Documents 537 In view of the explosion of violent conflicts in many parts of the world and the hasty, but prevailing, assumption that ethnicity is the source of these conflicts, this book is encompassed to highlight, describe and examine how ethnicity is politicized in many of these current conflicts. By deploying the instrumentalist approach and the theory of identity and difference in ethnicity, the author identifies the actors involved and depicts how religion is exploited as an instrument of division by reflecting it on the Nigerian situation, exploring the examples of the Jos conflicts and the Warri Crisis within a twenty years period, 1990 to 2010. The Contents The Dynamics of the Politicization of Ethnicity as the Cause of Conflicts in Nigeria Religious Crises: Shedding of Blood, Killings and Terrorism in Godâ#x80;#x99;s Name The Politics of Terror and Islamization Process of Boko Haram Multinational Firms and Conflicts: Failure of Corporate Social Responsibility Case Studies: Introduction of Contemporary Jos Conflicts and Warri Crises Target Groups Lecturers and students of Political Science, Conflict Studies, International Relations, Religious Studies, Ethnology, African Studies, Governance, Migration Studies, Economics and History Employees of International Organizations: United Nations (UN), OECD, the Commonwealth, GIZ, Conflict and Peace NGOs, Religious Institutions The Author Ademola Adediji is a Senior Research Fellow at the Department of International Relations and European Affairs at the University of Cologne "In view of the explosion of violent conflicts in many parts of the world and the hasty, but prevailing, assumption that ethnicity is the source of these conflicts, this book is encompassed to highlight, describe and examine how ethnicity is politicized in many of these current conflicts. By deploying the instrumentalist approach and the theory of identity and difference in ethnicity, the author identifies the actors involved and depicts how religion is exploited as an instrument of division by reflecting it on the Nigerian situation, exploring the examples of the Jos conflicts and the Warri Crisis within a twenty years period, 1990 to 2010"--Provided by publisher Front Matter....Pages 1-12 Introduction ....Pages 13-41 The Politicization of Ethnicity: Clarification and Analysis of Key Concepts ....Pages 43-117 Conceptual Framework: Theoretical Perspectives....Pages 119-182 Empirical Analysis: The Politicization of Ethnicity as the Cause of Conflicts ....Pages 183-308 Introduction: The Dynamics of the Politicization of Ethnicity in Nigeria ....Pages 309-498 General Conclusion....Pages 499-520 Back Matter....Pages 521-541