The Polar Oceans and Their Role in Shaping the Global Environment: Johannessen/The Polar Oceans and Their Role in Shaping the Global Environment

Fridtjof Nansen -- Scientist, Diplomat And Humanist / T. Gjelsvik -- The Arctic Ocean And Climate : A Perspective / K. Aagaard And E.c. Carmack -- A Review Of Coupled Ice-ocean Models / G.l. Mellor And S. Häkkinen -- On The Intermediate Depth Waters Of The Arctic Ocean / B. Rudels [and Others] -- Nutrient-based Tracers In The Western Arctic : A New Lower Halocine Water Defined / D.k. Salmon And C.p. Mcroy -- The Potential Of Barium As A Tracer Of Arctic Water Masses / K.k. Falkner [and Others] -- The Northern Barents Sea : Water Mass Distribution And Modification / S.l. Pfirman, D. Bauch And T. Gammelsrød -- A Study On The Inflow Of Atlantic Water To The Gin Sea Using Geosat Altimeter Data / P. Samuel, J.a. Johannessen And O.m. Johannessen -- Observation And Simulation Of Ice Tongues And Vortex Pairs In The Marginal Ice Zone / O.m. Johannessen [and Others] -- The Arctic Ocean Tides / Z. Kowalik And A.y. Proshutinsky --^ Distribution Of Water Masses On The Continental Shelf In The Southern Weddell Sea / T. Gammelsrød [and Others] -- ²²⁸ra And ²²⁸th In The Weddell Sea / M.m. Rutgers Van Der Loeff -- Modelling The Extent Of Sea Ice Ridging In The Weddell Sea / M. Harder And P. Lemke -- Thermobaric Convection / R.w. Garwood Jr., S.m. Isakari And P.c. Gallacher -- Oceanic Convection In The Greenland Sea Odden Region As Interpreted In Satellite Data / F.d. Carsey And A.t. Roach -- Transport Of Biogenic Particulate Matter To Depth Within The Greenland Sea / T.o. Manley And W.o. Smith Jr. -- Modelling Of Deep-sea Gravity Currents Using An Integrated Plume Model / G. Alendal, H. Drange And P.m. Haugan -- Net Primary Production And Stratification In The Ocean / T. Platt [and Others] -- Distribution Of Dissolved Inorganic And Organic Carbon In The Eurasian Basin Of The Arctic Ocean / L.g. Anderson, K. Olsson And A. Skoog --^ Primary Productivity Of A Phaeocystis Bloom In The Greenland Sea During Spring, 1989 / W.o. Smith -- Air-sea Co₂ Fluxes In The Southern Ocean Between 25° E And 85° E / A. Poisson [and Others] -- Arctic Structural Evolution : Relationship To Paleoceanography / G.l. Johnson, J. Pogrebitsky And R. Macnab -- Mid-pleistocene Climate Shift -- The Nansen Connection / W.h. Berger And E. Jansen -- Variability Of The Atmospheric Energy Flux Across 70° N Computed From The Gfdl Data Set / J.e. Overland And P. Turet -- The Influence Of Polar Oceans On Interannual Climate Variations / G. Alekseev -- Sea Ice Thickness Changes And Their Relation To Climate / P. Wadhams -- Variability In Sea-ice Thickness Over The North Pole From 1958 To 1992 / A.s. Mclaren [and Others] -- On The Required Accuracy Of Atmospheric Forcing Fields For Driving Dynamic-thermodynamic Sea Ice Models / H. Fischer And P. Lemke --^ On The Effect Of Ocean Circulation On Arctic Ice-margin Variations / W.d. Hibler Iii And J. Zhang -- On The Surface Heat Fluxes In The Weddell Sea / J. Launiainen And T. Vihma -- Southern Ocean Wave Fields During The Austral Winters, 1985-1988, By Geosat Radar Altimeter / W.j. Campbell, E.g. Josberger And N.m. Mognard -- Factors Affecting Variations Of Snow Surface Temperature And Air Temperature Over Sea Ice In Winter / P.s. Guest And K.l. Davidson -- Aircraft Measured Atmospheric Momentum, Heat And Radiation Fluxes Over Arctic Sea Ice / J. Hartmann [and Others] -- Opening And Closing Of The Husky 1 Lead Complex / R.w. Fett, K.l. Davidson And J.e. Overland -- Polynyas As A Possible Source For Enigmatic Bennett Island Atmospheric Plumes / D. Dethleff -- Interannual Variability Of The Thermohaline Structure In The Convective Gyre Of The Greenland Sea / G.v. Alekseev, V.v. Ivanov And A.a. Korablev --^ Microwave Remote Sensing Of The Snow And Ice Cover : The Russian Experience / K.y. Kondratyev And V.v. Melentyev -- Short- And Long-term Temporal Behavior Of Polar Sea Ice Covers From Satellite Passive-microwave Observations / W.j. Campbell, P. Gloersen And H.j. Zwally -- Acoustic Remote Sensing / W.h. Munk -- Closing Note : A Tribute To Fridtjof Nansen / N. Untersteiner. O.m. Johannessen, R.d. Muench, J.e. Overland, Editors. Papers Presented At The Nansen Centennial Symposium, Held At Solstrand, Norway, June 21-25, 1993. Includes Bibliographical References. Geophysical Monograph Series......Page 1 GEOPHYSICAL MONOGRAPH SERIES......Page 2 The Polar Oceans and Their Role in Shaping the Global Environment......Page 5 CONTENTS......Page 7 PREFACE......Page 11 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 12 Fridtjof Nansen - Scientist, Diplomat and Humanist......Page 14 1. BACKGROUND......Page 17 1.1 SUliace Heat Balance......Page 18 1.2 Ocean Overturning......Page 19 2.1 Circulation Features......Page 21 2.2 Eddies and the Variability of the T/S Structure......Page 25 2.3 Variability of Shelf-driven Ventilation......Page 29 REFERENCES......Page 30 1. INTRODUCTION......Page 33 The Momentum Equation......Page 34 The Equations for Mass and Concentration......Page 35 Ocean Model Characteristics......Page 36 Specific Ocean Models......Page 38 Partially diagnostic models......Page 39 Prognostic models......Page 40 5. SUMMARY......Page 41 REFERENCES......Page 42 INTRODUCTION......Page 44 The Eurasian Basin: Advection and Interleaving......Page 46 Canadian Basin: Slope Convection and Entrainment......Page 50 Shelf-Slope Plume Calculation......Page 52 Inferred Canadian Basin Circulation......Page 54 CONCLUDING REMARKS......Page 55 REFERENCES......Page 56 INTRODUCTION......Page 58 RESULTS......Page 59 DISCUSSION......Page 68 REFERENCES......Page 71 1. INTRODUCTION......Page 73 Marine Geochemical Behavior of Barium......Page 74 Alpha Helix Cruise 166......Page 75 Henry Larson Cruise 92-16......Page 76 4. ANALYTICAL PROCEDURE......Page 77 Alpha Helix Cruise 166......Page 79 Henry Larson Cruise 92-16......Page 81 6. SUMMARY......Page 84 REFERENCES......Page 85 INTRODUCTION......Page 87 BATHYMETRY AND HYDROGRAPHY......Page 89 DATA AND METHODS......Page 90 WA1ER MASS DISTRIBUTION......Page 91 Arctic Water......Page 93 Bottom Water......Page 95 Surface Water......Page 96 Atlantic-derived Water......Page 97 Cold Bottom Water......Page 100 CONCLUSIONS......Page 101 REFERENCES......Page 102 1 INTRODUCTION......Page 105 2 THE ALTIMETER MEASUREMENTS AND DATA PROCESSING......Page 107 3.1 Root Mean Square Anomalies......Page 109 3.3 Geostrophic Currents......Page 111 3.4 Volume Transport......Page 113 3.5 Comparison with In Situ Measurements and Heat Transport Estimates......Page 115 REFERENCES......Page 117 1. INTRODUCTION......Page 119 2. OBSERVATIONS DURING MIZEX 87......Page 120 2.1. Scene 1: Ice tongues and vortex-pair north of 78030 N.......Page 124 2.2. Scene 2: Ice tongue and vortex-pair at 78° 00' N......Page 127 2.3. Scene 3: Southerly jet and anticyclonic eddy.......Page 128 2.4. Other observations......Page 132 3. NUMERICAL MODEL......Page 133 3.1. Governing Equations......Page 134 4. NUMERICAL EXPERIMENTS......Page 137 Case 4. Barotropic Jet......Page 138 Case 5. Broader Baroclinic Jet with Flat Bottom......Page 140 Case 7. Upper Layer jet with Flat Bottom......Page 141 4.2. DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSES......Page 142 5. DISCUSSION......Page 144 REFERENCES......Page 145 1. INTRODUCTION......Page 147 2. EQUATIONS AND BOUNDARY CONDITIONS......Page 149 4.1. Structure of the co- tidal and co- range charts......Page 151 4.2. Tidal currents......Page 156 4.3. Tide?ice interaction......Page 157 5. SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION......Page 166 REFERENCES......Page 167 1. INTRODUCTION......Page 169 3.1. Water mass definitions and origins......Page 171 3.2. Distribution of properties along the Filchner-Ronne IceShelf......Page 172 3.3. Distribution of properties on the Berkner shelf......Page 174 4.1 The intrusion of WDE4/ on the Continental Shelf......Page 175 4.2 Indication of up welling at the Berkner Shelf......Page 176 4.3. Melting rates beneath the ice shelf......Page 177 4.4. Residence times below the ice shelf......Page 179 4.5 Water mass transformations and bottom water formation......Page 180 4.6. Long term variability......Page 182 4.7. Concluding remarks......Page 183 REFERENCES......Page 185 INTRODUCTION......Page 187 MATERIAL AND METHODS......Page 188 RESULTS......Page 189 Shelf Waters......Page 191 Deep-Sea:......Page 193 REFERENCES......Page 195 1. INTRODUCTION......Page 197 2. DESCRIPTION OF THE MODEL......Page 198 4.1. Standard simulation......Page 200 4.2. Investigation of the ridging parameter RA......Page 204 REFERENCES......Page 206 1. INTRODUCTION......Page 208 1.2. Large-Eddy Simulation LES: a Tool to Test Hypotheses......Page 209 2. THERMOBARIC FREE CONVECTION......Page 210 2.1. Large-Eddy-Simulation of Thermally-Driven Deep FreeConvection Without Salinity......Page 211 3. THERMOBARIC CONDITIONAL INSTABILITIES......Page 212 3.1. Parcel Instability Criterion and Large-Eddy Simulation......Page 214 3.2. Layer Instability Criterion: Possible Explanation for Scott and Killworth [1991] Chimneys......Page 215 REFERENCES......Page 217 1.1 Background......Page 219 1.3 Winter Processes in the Odden region......Page 220 2.4 The SSMII Ice Edge......Page 221 3.2 Ice Retreat in 1989......Page 222 4.1 A Simple Model of Ice Retreat......Page 225 4.2 Refinements of Odden Behavior......Page 226 52 The Hypothesized Plumes......Page 227 6. CONCLUSIONS......Page 228 7. REFERENCES......Page 229 1. INTRODUCTION......Page 231 3. OBSERVATIONS......Page 232 4. RESULTS......Page 234 5. DISCUSSION......Page 240 6. CONCLUSIONS......Page 242 REFERENCES......Page 243 INTRODUCTION......Page 245 The Physical Configuration......Page 246 THE APPEARANCE OF A SINGULARITY IN THE MODEL......Page 247 The Modelled Volume Transport......Page 248 The Weddell Sea Continental Slope......Page 249 The Gibraltar Strait......Page 250 The Local Governing Equations......Page 251 Integration of the Local Equations......Page 252 REFERENCES......Page 253 1. INTRODUCTION......Page 255 4. REALISED RATE OF INCREASE......Page 256 5. EULERIAN AND LAGRANGIAN METHODS......Page 257 7. FEEDBACK BETWEEN THE PHYSICAL AND BIOLOGICAL DYNAMICS......Page 258 8. DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE WORK......Page 259 9. STATUS OF THE SVERDRUP THEORY......Page 260 REFERENCES......Page 261 1. INTRODUCTION......Page 263 2.1. Cruise Description......Page 264 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION......Page 265 6. REFERENCES......Page 269 1. INTRODUCTION......Page 271 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS......Page 272 1.1. Biomass Distributions......Page 273 3.2. Primary Productivity......Page 275 3.3. Productivity Calculations......Page 276 4. DISCUSSION......Page 278 REFERENCES......Page 280 INTRODUCTION......Page 281 METHOD......Page 282 MERIDIONAL PROFILES IN THE WESTERN AREA......Page 283 ON THE WESTERN SIDE OF THE KERGUELENPLATEAU......Page 288 CONCLUSIONS......Page 290 REFERENCES......Page 291 INTRODUCTION......Page 293 AMERASIA BASIN EVOLUTION......Page 296 PALEOCEANOGRAPHY......Page 298 SUMMARY......Page 300 REFERENCES......Page 301 1. INTRODUCTION......Page 303 2. MORPHOLOGY OF THE TRANSITION......Page 304 3. A TEST FOR ABRUPTNESS OF CHANGE......Page 305 4. THE QUESTION OF CAUSE......Page 307 5. EFFECTS OF TOPOGRAPHIC CHANGES......Page 309 6. BARENTS SEA SHELF AND GLACIATION......Page 310 7. OCEAN CIRCULATION AND THE NORWEGIAN SEA......Page 314 9. CONCLUSIONS......Page 315 REFERENCES......Page 316 1. INTRODUCTION......Page 320 2. DATA AND METHODS: ESTIMATING FwALL......Page 321 a. The Annual Cycle......Page 322 b. Interannual Variability......Page 324 4. SPATIAL VARIABILITY OF TRANSIENT EDDY TRANSPORT......Page 329 5. SUMMARY......Page 330 REFERENCES......Page 332 INTRODUCTION......Page 333 THE INFLUENCE OF THE OCEANS ON MEAN AIR TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE "OCEAN ATMOSPHERE-LAND SYSTEM"......Page 334 CONTRIBUTION ESTIMATES OF THE FREEZING PROCESS IN THE HEAT BUDGET OF THE ARCTIC BASIN......Page 337 ATLANTIC WATER ROLE IN HEAT AND SALT BUDGET AND IN WATER MASS FORMATION OF THE ARCTIC OCEAN......Page 339 REFERENCES......Page 341 1. THE ICE THICKNESS DISTRIBUTION......Page 343 2. STATISTICAL PROPERTIES OF THE THICKNESS DISTRIBUTION......Page 346 Current techniques......Page 348 Possible future techniques......Page 352 Arctic......Page 354 Antarctic......Page 359 Fast ice......Page 361 Moving pack ice......Page 362 Ice edge regions and convection......Page 363 REFERENCES......Page 364 INTRODUCTION......Page 368 DATA PROCESSING......Page 369 Mean and Comparative Ice Statistics......Page 370 Probability Density Function......Page 373 SUMMARY......Page 375 REFERENCES......Page 376 1 INTRODUCTION......Page 377 3.1 Standard run......Page 378 3.2 Sensitivity studies......Page 379 4 CONCLUSIONS......Page 383 REFERENCES......Page 384 I. INTRODUCTION......Page 386 4. SIMULATION RESULTS......Page 387 4.1 Ocean Circulation Characteristics......Page 389 4.2 Ocean Heat Budget and Ice Mass Balance Characteristics......Page 391 4.3 Seasonal and Interannual Variations of the Ice Margin......Page 393 5. CONCLUDING REMARKS......Page 397 REFERENCES......Page 399 1. INTRODUCTION......Page 401 2. OBSERVATIONS......Page 402 3. COMPUTATION METHOD FOR THE FLUXES......Page 403 4. SOURCES OF INACCURACY IN FLUX ESTIMATES......Page 405 5.1. Fluxes over the sea ice......Page 407 5.2. Fluxes over leads and coastal polynyas......Page 409 5.3. Fluxes over the open ocean in autumn......Page 410 5.5. Heat flux through ice and snow......Page 412 6. BOWEN RATIO AND SUMMARY OF THE SURFACE HEAT BALANCE......Page 413 7.1. Calculation of the heat flux from the observed profiles......Page 415 7.2 Case studies......Page 416 8. CONCLUSIONS......Page 417 APPENDIX: EMPIRICAL FORMULAE FOR COMPUTATION OF TURBULENT SURFACE FLUXES......Page 418 REFERENCES......Page 419 1. INTRODUCTION......Page 422 2.2. The Austral Winter Ice Edge Location......Page 423 3. CLIMATOLOGY AND GEOSAT AUSTRAL WINTER FIELD......Page 425 4. GEOSAT SEASONAL FIELDS FROM 1985 TO 1988......Page 427 5. CONCLUSIONS......Page 432 REFERENCES......Page 435 2. LINKING OF NEAR-SURFACE AIR ANDAIR/SNOW INTERFACIAL TEMPERATURES......Page 436 3. LINKING LONGWAVE RADIATION ANDNEAR-SURFACE AIR TEMPERATURE......Page 438 4. CONDUCTION AND ATMOSPHERIC TIME SCALES......Page 439 REFERENCES......Page 442 1 INTRODUCTION......Page 444 2 THE REFLEX I CAMPAIGN......Page 445 3.1 Line Scan Camera......Page 446 3.2 Radiation Measurements......Page 447 4.1 Turbulent Vertical Fluxes......Page 448 4.2 Surface Radiation Balance......Page 452 5 CONCLUSIONS......Page 454 REFERENCES......Page 455 1. INTRODUCTION......Page 456 2. REGIONAL METEOROLOGICAL AND SEA ICEANALYSES 21-24 MARCH 1992......Page 457 3. SMALL SCALE ICE FEATURES 10 - 100 KM......Page 459 4. REGIONAL METEOROLOGICAL AND SEA ICE ANALYSIS 25 - 28 MARCH 1992......Page 460 5. INTERPRETATION OF THE SAR IMAGERY......Page 466 REFERENCES......Page 474 SHORT NOTES ON TERMINOLOGY......Page 475 Heat Flux Calculations......Page 476 RESULTS......Page 477 PHYSICAL CONDITIONS OF PLUME FORMATION......Page 480 DISCUSSION......Page 481 CONCLUSIONS......Page 482 REFERENCES......Page 483 1. INTRODUCTION......Page 484 2. DATA COLLECTION......Page 485 3. THERMOHALINE STRUCTURE CONVECTIVE TRANSFORMATION......Page 486 4. THERMOHALINE PARAMETERS TIME SERIES ANALYSIS......Page 491 5. DISCUSSION......Page 493 REFERENCES......Page 495 1. INTRODUCTION......Page 496 3. MICROWAVE REMOTE SENSING OF SEA ICE:FUNDAMENTAL RESEARCH......Page 497 4.1. Sea Ice Parameter Retrieval in the Sea of Okhotsk......Page 498 4.2. Sea Ice Thickness Estimation from Low-FrequencyMicrowaves in the Sea of Okhotsk and Chukchi Sea......Page 499 4.3 Active and Passive Microwave Sensing of Fast Ice in the East Siberian Sea......Page 500 4.4. Microwave Studies of Freshwater Ice and Snow:High-Latitude and High-Altitude Case Studies......Page 501 REFERENCES......Page 502 INTRODUCTION......Page 504 ESMR, AND SSMI AND THEIR SEA ICE ALGORITHMS......Page 505 LONG-TERM BEHAVIOR OF THE POLAR SEA ICE COVERS......Page 506 Beaufort Sea Region......Page 508 Canadian Basin Region......Page 512 Chukchi Sea Region......Page 513 REFERENCES......Page 514 3. CLIMATE MODELING......Page 520 6. ACOUSTIC THERMOMETRY OFOCEAN CLIMATE ATOC......Page 521 REFERENCES......Page 522 Closing Note: A Tribute to Fridtj of Nansen......Page 523 Fridtjof Nansen -- Scientist, Diplomat And Humanist / T. Gjelsvik -- The Arctic Ocean And Climate : A Perspective / K. Aagaard And E.c. Carmack -- A Review Of Coupled Ice-ocean Models / G.l. Mellor And S. Häkkinen -- On The Intermediate Depth Waters Of The Arctic Ocean / B. Rudels [and Others] -- Nutrient-based Tracers In The Western Arctic : A New Lower Halocine Water Defined / D.k. Salmon And C.p. Mcroy -- The Potential Of Barium As A Tracer Of Arctic Water Masses / K.k. Falkner [and Others] -- The Northern Barents Sea : Water Mass Distribution And Modification / S.l. Pfirman, D. Bauch And T. Gammelsrød -- A Study On The Inflow Of Atlantic Water To The Gin Sea Using Geosat Altimeter Data / P. Samuel, J.a. Johannessen And O.m. Johannessen -- Observation And Simulation Of Ice Tongues And Vortex Pairs In The Marginal Ice Zone / O.m. Johannessen [and Others] -- The Arctic Ocean Tides / Z. Kowalik And A.y. Proshutinsky --^ Distribution Of Water Masses On The Continental Shelf In The Southern Weddell Sea / T. Gammelsrød [and Others] -- 228ra And 228th In The Weddell Sea / M.m. Rutgers Van Der Loeff -- Modelling The Extent Of Sea Ice Ridging In The Weddell Sea / M. Harder And P. Lemke -- Thermobaric Convection / R.w. Garwood Jr., S.m. Isakari And P.c. Gallacher -- Oceanic Convection In The Greenland Sea Odden Region As Interpreted In Satellite Data / F.d. Carsey And A.t. Roach -- Transport Of Biogenic Particulate Matter To Depth Within The Greenland Sea / T.o. Manley And W.o. Smith Jr. -- Modelling Of Deep-sea Gravity Currents Using An Integrated Plume Model / G. Alendal, H. Drange And P.m. Haugan -- Net Primary Production And Stratification In The Ocean / T. Platt [and Others] -- Distribution Of Dissolved Inorganic And Organic Carbon In The Eurasian Basin Of The Arctic Ocean / L.g. Anderson, K. Olsson And A. Skoog --^ Primary Productivity Of A Phaeocystis Bloom In The Greenland Sea During Spring, 1989 / W.o. Smith -- Air-sea Co2 Fluxes In The Southern Ocean Between 25° E And 85° E / A. Poisson [and Others] -- Arctic Structural Evolution : Relationship To Paleoceanography / G.l. Johnson, J. Pogrebitsky And R. Macnab -- Mid-pleistocene Climate Shift -- The Nansen Connection / W.h. Berger And E. Jansen -- Variability Of The Atmospheric Energy Flux Across 70° N Computed From The Gfdl Data Set / J.e. Overland And P. Turet -- The Influence Of Polar Oceans On Interannual Climate Variations / G. Alekseev -- Sea Ice Thickness Changes And Their Relation To Climate / P. Wadhams -- Variability In Sea-ice Thickness Over The North Pole From 1958 To 1992 / A.s. Mclaren [and Others] -- On The Required Accuracy Of Atmospheric Forcing Fields For Driving Dynamic-thermodynamic Sea Ice Models / H. Fischer And P. Lemke --^ On The Effect Of Ocean Circulation On Arctic Ice-margin Variations / W.d. Hibler Iii And J. Zhang -- On The Surface Heat Fluxes In The Weddell Sea / J. Launiainen And T. Vihma -- Southern Ocean Wave Fields During The Austral Winters, 1985-1988, By Geosat Radar Altimeter / W.j. Campbell, E.g. Josberger And N.m. Mognard -- Factors Affecting Variations Of Snow Surface Temperature And Air Temperature Over Sea Ice In Winter / P.s. Guest And K.l. Davidson -- Aircraft Measured Atmospheric Momentum, Heat And Radiation Fluxes Over Arctic Sea Ice / J. Hartmann [and Others] -- Opening And Closing Of The Husky 1 Lead Complex / R.w. Fett, K.l. Davidson And J.e. Overland -- Polynyas As A Possible Source For Enigmatic Bennett Island Atmospheric Plumes / D. Dethleff -- Interannual Variability Of The Thermohaline Structure In The Convective Gyre Of The Greenland Sea / G.v. Alekseev, V.v. Ivanov And A.a. Korablev --^ Microwave Remote Sensing Of The Snow And Ice Cover : The Russian Experience / K.y. Kondratyev And V.v. Melentyev -- Short- And Long-term Temporal Behavior Of Polar Sea Ice Covers From Satellite Passive-microwave Observations / W.j. Campbell, P. Gloersen And H.j. Zwally -- Acoustic Remote Sensing / W.h. Munk -- Closing Note : A Tribute To Fridtjof Nansen / N. Untersteiner. O.m. Johannessen, R.d. Muench, J.e. Overland, Editors. Papers Presented At The Nansen Centennial Symposium, Held At Solstrand, Norway, June 21-25, 1993. Includes Bibliographical References. Published by the American Geophysical Union as part of the Geophysical Monograph Series, Volume 85. On June 24, 1993, one hundred years had passed since Fridtjof Nansen and his companions set out on one of the most daring and exciting research expeditions the world had ever seen. They allowed their vessel, the Fram , to be frozen into the ice close to the New Siberian Islands, in the Arctic Ocean. Three years were to elapse before the ice released its hold on the Fram and allowed her to return to Norway via the strait between Greenland and Spitsbergen, which later came to be known as Fram Strait. The research carried out during Fram 's drift in the ice altered forever our concept of the Arctic Basin. About The ProductPublished by the American Geophysical Union as part of the __Geophysical Monograph Series__. Content: