The physics of metrology : all about instruments : from trundle wheels to atomic clocks

Conceived as a reference manual for practicing engineers, instrument designers, service technicians and engineering students. The related fields of physics, mechanics and mathematics are frequently incorporated to enhance the understanding of the subject matter. Historical anecdotes as far back as Hellenistic times to modern scientists help illustrate in an entertaining manner ideas ranging from impractical inventions in history to those that have changed our lives. Cover......Page 1 The Physics of Metrology (Springer, 2010)......Page 3 ISBN 978-3-211-78380-1......Page 4 Acknowledgements......Page 5 Preface......Page 6 Table of contents......Page 8 Illustrations......Page 14 Trundle wheel......Page 21 Distance measurement......Page 23 Triangulation......Page 24 Theodolites......Page 26 Optical distance meters......Page 28 Reflective distance meters......Page 29 Beam-modulation telemetry......Page 30 Global Positioning System......Page 33 Ruler and gage blocks......Page 34 Caliper......Page 36 Micrometers......Page 38 Dial indicators......Page 39 2 Angles and arcs......Page 42 Cross staff angle measurement......Page 44 Astrolabe and quadrant......Page 45 Sextant......Page 48 Levels......Page 49 Protractor and the carpenter’’s bevel......Page 50 Sine-bar......Page 51 Digital theodolites and encoders......Page 52 3 Clocks and the measurement of time ......Page 58 Water clocks......Page 60 Gravity-driven timepieces......Page 65 Candle clocks......Page 68 Sandglasses......Page 69 Mechanical clockworks......Page 70 The foliot escapement......Page 71 Pendulum escapement......Page 72 Balance wheel escapement......Page 75 Spring-driven clockworks......Page 76 Tuning fork ratchet control......Page 77 Crystal-controlled watches......Page 78 Clocks and the atom......Page 80 A truly nature-based frequency standard......Page 81 Building an atomic clock......Page 82 Tachometer......Page 84 Pickups......Page 88 Sound and ultrasound......Page 91 Echo sounding......Page 94 Piezoelectric probes......Page 95 Radar......Page 96 Doppler shift radar......Page 97 A glimpse at relativity......Page 98 Velocity and acceleration......Page 100 Liquid flow metering......Page 102 Orifice flowmeters......Page 104 Variable-area flowmeter......Page 105 Positive displacement meters......Page 106 Gasometers......Page 109 5 Force, mass, weight, and torque ......Page 111 Strain gages and the Wheatstone bridge......Page 112 Measuring deflection......Page 115 Crystal strain gauges......Page 117 From levers to scales and balances......Page 118 Scales and weights......Page 119 Torque......Page 125 Motor torque and de Prony’s brake......Page 127 Eddy current dynamometer......Page 129 6 Vibrations......Page 132 The omnipresent vortex......Page 133 Waves and the sine line......Page 135 Aeolian vibrations......Page 139 Practice meets theory......Page 142 Wind power of the nasty kind......Page 143 Vibration dampers......Page 145 Monitoring vibration damping......Page 147 Terra not so firma......Page 148 Earthquake detection......Page 150 Vibration sensors......Page 153 Frequency measurement instrumentation......Page 154 Forced oscillations......Page 156 Crank mechanics......Page 158 Some fascinating crank-driven machinery......Page 162 Digital metering......Page 164 In comes the computer!......Page 165 Noncontact measurements......Page 166 Doppler vibrometer......Page 168 Six’s thermometer......Page 170 Gas thermometer......Page 171 Thermoelectric temperature sensors......Page 172 Resistance thermometry......Page 176 Radiation pyrometry......Page 179 Thermistors......Page 182 Calorimetry......Page 183 Berthelot’s bomb calorimeter......Page 185 Specific heat capacity......Page 187 Nernst calorimeter......Page 188 Thermophore......Page 192 Apparatus of Cle ́ment and Desormes......Page 193 Entropy and the heat-death......Page 195 8 Pressure......Page 197 Mercury barometer......Page 198 Dial barometer......Page 202 Low and rough grade vacuum......Page 203 Once upon a time • • •......Page 204 Bourdon tube manometer......Page 205 Membrane-actuated manometers......Page 206 Energy via airmail......Page 207 The “incompressible” fluids......Page 210 Down and under • • •......Page 212 Diamond anvil cell......Page 214 The other face of the coin......Page 215 Capacitance manometer......Page 217 McLoid vacuum meter......Page 219 Pirani heat transfer manometer......Page 220 New age machine design......Page 222 Ladder diagram......Page 223 The not so missing link......Page 224 Typical applications of pneumatic cylinders......Page 227 Valves, the gray eminence......Page 228 Pneumatics and hydraulics......Page 230 Pressure sensors......Page 231 The atmosphere and the cosmos......Page 232 9 Density of solids, liquids, and gases ......Page 234 Measurements of gas density......Page 235 Effusiometer......Page 236 Hydrogen and helium......Page 237 Acoustic gas density meter......Page 238 Density of solids......Page 241 Pycnometer......Page 242 Mohr (Westphal) balance......Page 245 Hydrometer......Page 247 Hare’s apparatus......Page 250 Oscillating tube densitometer......Page 251 Density of extrasolar objects......Page 253 Vanishing grease blot......Page 256 Clap hands – here comes the semiconductor!......Page 258 The finite velocity of propagation of light......Page 262 I see the light!......Page 264 The enchanted land of lenses......Page 266 Binoculars......Page 269 The roots of white light......Page 270 Newtonian reflectors......Page 273 Schmidt–Cassegrain telescopes......Page 275 From extreme to extreme......Page 276 Electron microscope......Page 278 Spectrometry......Page 280 Prism spectroscope......Page 282 Diffraction grating spectroscope......Page 283 The symphony orchestra in the living room......Page 285 Sound propagation......Page 287 The wave nature of sound......Page 291 Audio systems......Page 293 The two faces of the dynamic speaker......Page 296 Piezoelectric transducers......Page 298 Technology of piezoelectrics......Page 300 Ribbon microphone......Page 302 Condenser microphones......Page 304 Electrostatic speakers......Page 305 Sound tracking......Page 307 Echo sounding......Page 308 Ultra- and hypersound......Page 309 Sonography......Page 311 Sonoluminescence......Page 312 Addendum......Page 313 12 Electrical and electronic instruments ......Page 314 Volt and ampere......Page 315 D’Arsonval galvanometer......Page 316 Transistorized multimeter......Page 321 Iron-vane instrument......Page 323 Bimetal ammeter......Page 326 Power meters......Page 327 Resistance meters......Page 328 Cross coil instruments......Page 329 Tenacious oddball......Page 330 Let’s get digitized!......Page 331 The LED at the end of the tunnel......Page 339 Analog-to-digital conversion......Page 341 Successive-approximation converter......Page 344 Slope integrating ADC......Page 345 13 Automation – instruments that think ......Page 347 Thermostats......Page 348 Electronic temperature controllers......Page 349 Operation of ON⁄OFF mode controllers......Page 353 Luminosity control......Page 356 CO2 control in exhaust gases......Page 357 Sulfur dioxide measurement......Page 359 Humidity control......Page 360 Moisture control......Page 361 Conductivity of fluids and liquids......Page 363 Some control theory......Page 364 Proportional control......Page 365 Pneumatic control systems......Page 366 Flashback to the roots of automation......Page 370 Bibliography......Page 372 For further reading......Page 373 Index of names......Page 374 Subject index......Page 376 1. The Measurement Of Length -- Trundle Wheel -- Chains And Tape Measures -- Distance Measurement -- Triangulation -- Theodolites -- Optical Distance Meters -- Reflective Distance Meters -- Beam-modulation Telemetry -- Global Positioning System -- Ruler And Gage Blocks -- Caliper -- Micrometers -- Dial Indicators -- 2. Angles And Arcs -- Cross Staff Angle Measurement -- Astrolabe And Quadrant -- Sextant -- Levels --inclinometers And Laser Levelers -- Protractor And The Carpenter's Bevel -- Sine-bar -- Digital Theodolites And Encoders -- 3. Clocks And The Measurement Of Time -- Water Clocks -- Gravity-driven Timepieces -- Candle Clocks -- Sandglasses -- Mechanical Clockworks -- The Foliot Escapement -- Pendulum Escapement -- Spring-driven Clockworks -- Electric Clock -- Tuning Fork Ratchet Control -- Crystal-controlled Watches -- Clocks And The Atom -- A Truly Nature-based Frequency Standard -- Building An Atomic Clock -- 4. Velocity And Acceleration -- Tachometer -- Pickups --^ Sound And Ultrasound -- Echo Sounding -- Piezoelectric Probes -- Radar -- Doppler Shift Radar -- A Glimpse At Relativity -- Velocity And Acceleration -- Liquid Flow Metering -- Orifice Flowmeters -- Variable-area Flowmeter -- Variable-area Flowmeter -- Positive Displacement Meters -- Gasometers -- 5. Force, Mass, Weight, And Torque -- Strain Gages And The Wheatstone Bridge -- Measuring Deflection -- Crystal Strain Gauges -- From Levers To Scales And Balances -- Scales And Weights -- Torque -- Motor Torque And De Prony's Brake -- Eddy Current Dynamometer -- 6. Vibrations -- Aeolian Harp -- The Dawn Of Music -- The Omnipresent Vortex -- Waves And The Sine Line -- String Theories --aeolian Vibrations -- Practice Meets Theory -- Iii Winds -- Wind Power Of The Nasty Kind -- Controlling Aeolian Vibrations -- Vibration Dampers -- Monitoring Vibration Damping -- Terra Not So Firma -- Earthquake Detection -- Vibration Sensors -- Displaying Signals -- Frequency Measurement Instrumentation --^ Forced Oscillations -- Crank Mechanics -- Some Fascinating Crank-driven Machinery -- Analog Frequency Meters -- Digital Metering -- In Comes The Computer! -- Noncontact Measurements -- Doppler Vibrometer -- 7. Thermodynamics -- Six's Thermometer -- Gas Thermometer -- Thermoelectric Temperature Sensors -- Resistance Thermometry -- Radiation Pyrometry -- Thermistors -- Calorimetry -- Berthelot's Bomb Calorimeter -- Specific Heat Capacity -- Nernst Calorimeter -- Thermophore -- Specific Heat Energy Of Gases -- Apparatus Of Clément And Desormes -- Entropy And The Heat-death -- 8. Pressure -- Mercury Barometer -- Dial Barometer -- Low And Rough Grade Vacuum -- Once Upon A Time -- Bourdon Tube Manometer -- Membrane-actuated Manometers. Energy Via Airmail -- The Incompressible Fluids -- Hydraulic Ram -- Down And Under -- Diamond Anvil Cell -- The Other Face Of The Coin -- Capacitance Manometer -- Mcloid Vacuum Meter -- Pirani Heat Transfer Manometer -- New Age Machine Design -- Ladder Diagram -- The Not So Missing Link -- Typical Applications Of Pneumatic Cylinders -- Valves, The Gray Eminence -- Pneumatics And Hydraulics -- Pressure Sensors -- The Atmosphere And The Cosmos -- 9. Density Of Solids, Liquids, And Gases -- Density And Atomic Mass -- Measurements Of Gas Density -- Effusiometer -- Hydrogen And Helium -- Acoustic Gas Density Meter -- Density Of Solids -- Density Of Liquids -- Pycnometer -- Nicholson's Hydrometer -- Mohr (westphal) Balance -- Hydrometer -- Hare's Apparatus -- Oscillating Tube Densitometer -- Density Of Extrasolar Objects -- 10. Light And Radiation -- Vanishing Grease Blot -- Clap Hands -- Here Comes The Semiconductor! -- The Finite Velocity Of Propagation Of Light --^ I See The Light! -- The Enchanted Land Of Lenses -- Binoculars -- The Roots Of White Light -- Reflecting Telescopes -- Newtonian Reflectors -- Schmidt-cassegrain Telescopes -- From Extreme To Extreme -- Electron Microscope -- Spectrometry -- Prism Spectroscope -- Diffraction Grating Spectroscope -- 11. Acoustics -- The Symphony Orchestra In The Living Room -- Sound Propagation -- The Wave Nature Of Sound -- Audio Systems -- The Two Faces Of The Dynamic Speaker -- Piezoelectric Transducers -- Technology Of Piezoelectrics -- An Application Of Piezoelectric Transducers -- Ribbon Microphone -- Condenser Microphones -- Electrostatic Speakers -- Sound Tracking -- Echo Sounding -- Ultra- And Hypersound -- Sonography -- Sonoluminescence -- Addendum -- 12. Electrical And Electronic Instruments -- Volt And Ampere -- D'arsonval Galvanometer -- Transistorized Multimeter -- Iron-vane Instrument -- Bimetal Ammeter -- Power Meters -- Resistance Meters -- Cross Coil Instruments --^ Tenacious Oddball -- Let's Get Digitized! -- The Led At The End Of The Tunnel -- Digital Measurement Of Analog Magnitudes -- Analog-to-digital Conversion -- Successive-approximation Converter -- Slope Integrating Adc -- 13. Automation : Instruments That Think -- Thermostats -- Electronic Temperature Controllers -- Operation Of On/off Mode Controllers -- Luminosity Control -- Co2 Control In Exhaust Gases -- Sulfur Dioxide Measurement -- Humidity Control -- Moisture Control -- Conductivity Of Fluids And Liquids -- Some Control Theory -- Proportional Control -- Pneumatic Control Systems -- Flashback To The Roots Of Automation. Alexius J. Hebra. Includes Bibliographical References And Index.