The Phonology of Tone and Intonation (Research Surveys in Linguistics)

Tone and Intonation are two types of pitch variation, which are used by speakers of all languages in order to give shape to utterances. More specifically, tone encodes segments and morphemes, and intonation gives utterances a further discoursal meaning that is independent of the meanings of the words themselves. In this comprehensive survey, Carlos Gussenhoven provides an overview of research into tone and intonation, discussing why speakers vary their pitch, what pitch variations mean, and how they are integrated into our grammars. He also explains why intonation in part appears to be universally understood, while at other times it is language-specific and can lead to misunderstandings. After eight chapters on general topics relating to pitch modulation, the book's central arguments are illustrated with comprehensive phonological descriptions - partly in Optimality Theory - of the tonal and intonational systems of six languages, including Japanese, Dutch, and English. Half-title......Page 2 Series-title......Page 3 Title......Page 4 Copyright......Page 5 Dedication......Page 6 Contents......Page 8 Figures......Page 12 Map......Page 15 Tables......Page 16 Preface......Page 18 Acknowledgements......Page 21 Abbreviations......Page 23 Symbols......Page 25 1.2 Frequency of vocal fold vibration, fundamental frequency (F0), and pitch......Page 26 1.3 Pitch tracks......Page 28 1.4.1 Tracking errors......Page 30 1.4.2 Consonantal effects on F......Page 32 1.4.3 Vocalic effects on F......Page 33 1.4.4 End-of utterance effects......Page 34 1.5 Experimentation......Page 35 Notes......Page 36 2.2 Stress......Page 37 2.2.1 The phonetic correlates of stress......Page 39 2.2.2 Phonological effects......Page 40 2.2.3 The role of fundamental frequency......Page 42 2.2.4 ‘Degrees’ of stress in English......Page 44 2.3 Intonation......Page 47 Notes......Page 49 3.2 Tone languages......Page 51 3.3 Autosegmental representations of tone......Page 53 3.3.1 The Tone Bearing Unit......Page 54 3.3.2 Word melodies......Page 55 3.3.3 Obligatory Contour Principle......Page 57 3.3.4 Tone contrasts......Page 58 3.3.5 Toneless and tonal morphemes......Page 59 3.3.6 Empty TBUs......Page 60 3.5 Accent......Page 61 3.5.1 Assigning and deleting accent......Page 62 3.5.2 Accent without a subgroup of unaccented words......Page 64 3.5.3 On the prominence of accent......Page 65 3.5.4 Is there a class of ‘accent languages’?......Page 66 3.6 Tonogenesis......Page 67 3.6.1 Propagation of tone within and across languages......Page 68 3.6.3 Tonal or non-tonal?......Page 70 3.7 Conclusion......Page 72 Notes......Page 73 4.1 Introduction......Page 74 4.2 Intonation and the design features of language......Page 75 Lack of discreteness......Page 76 Lack of duality......Page 77 Arbitrary form–function relations......Page 78 Discretely different intonation contours......Page 79 4.3 A half-tamed savage......Page 82 4.3.1 Intonation as structure......Page 83 4.3.2 Phonetic implementation......Page 84 4.3.3 Phonetic implementation or phonological representation?......Page 85 4.4.1 The imitation task......Page 87 4.4.2 The pitch-range task......Page 88 4.4.4 The categorical perception task......Page 91 4.5 Conclusion......Page 94 Notes......Page 95 5.1 Introduction......Page 96 5.3.1 Social aspirations......Page 97 Contrast enhancement......Page 98 Contrast preservation......Page 99 5.3.3 Automatic or controlled?......Page 100 5.4 Pitch register and pitch span......Page 101 5.4.1 Control of pitch range......Page 102 5.5 Biological codes in pitch variation......Page 104 5.6 The Frequency Code......Page 105 5.6.1 Affective interpretations of the Frequency Code......Page 106 5.6.2 Informational interpretations of the Frequency Code......Page 107 Grammaticalizations......Page 108 5.7.1 An informational interpretation of the Effort Code......Page 110 Grammaticalization: focus......Page 111 Grammaticalization......Page 113 5.8.1 Descending slope......Page 114 5.9 Substitute phonetic features......Page 115 5.10 Language-specific universal meaning?......Page 117 5.11 Conclusion......Page 118 Notes......Page 121 6.1 Introduction......Page 122 6.2 Declination......Page 123 6.3 Downstep......Page 125 6.3.1 Automatic and non-automatic downstep......Page 126 6.3.2 Independent evidence for floating L......Page 127 6.3.4 On the status of a downstepped tone......Page 129 6.3.5 Total downstep......Page 130 6.3.6 Morphological triggers of downstep......Page 131 6.3.7 H-raising (upstep)......Page 133 6.4 Final lowering......Page 135 6.4.1 On ‘preplanning’......Page 136 6.4.2 Grammaticalization of final lowering......Page 137 6.5.1 Interpreting high beginnings......Page 138 6.6.1 Phonological gradience?......Page 141 6.6.2 Perceived declination and the reference line......Page 143 6.6.3 Measuring declination......Page 144 6.7 Conclusion......Page 146 Notes......Page 147 7.1 Introduction......Page 148 7.2.1 Autosegmental-Metrical representation......Page 150 7.2.2 Pitch accents and boundary tones......Page 151 7.2.4 Targets and interpolations......Page 153 7.2.5 Lexical and intonational tones in a single tier......Page 154 7.2.7 The 1986 model......Page 155 7.2.8 ToBI......Page 157 7.3.1 Pitch accents......Page 158 7.3.2 Boundary tones......Page 160 7.3.3 Secondary association......Page 163 7.3.4 Phrase accent......Page 164 7.4 Rhythmic adjustments of pitch-accent distribution......Page 166 Notes......Page 167 8.1 Introduction......Page 168 8.2 Gen, Eval, and Con......Page 169 8.3 OT and the tonal representation......Page 170 8.3.2 Faithfulness......Page 171 8.3.3 Association......Page 173 8.3.4 Alignment......Page 175 8.3.5 Violating CONCATENATE......Page 177 8.3.6 Simultaneous satisfaction of opposite alignments......Page 178 8.4 Positional effects......Page 182 8.5 OT and prosodic phrasing......Page 184 8.5.1 Interacting factors in prosodic phrasing......Page 185 8.5.2 Three issues in the Selkirk–Truckenbrodt account......Page 188 8.6 Conclusion......Page 192 Notes......Page 193 9.1 Introduction......Page 195 9.2 Lexical representations......Page 196 9.3 The Accentual Phrase......Page 197 9.3.2 Lexical accent in alpha......Page 198 9.3.3 The pronunciation of Lalpha Halpha......Page 199 9.4 Unaccented alpha without default H*L......Page 200 9.5 The Intermediate Phrase......Page 201 9.5.1 Downstep......Page 202 9.5.2 Subordinated alpha......Page 203 9.6 The construction of ip......Page 204 9.7.1 Presentational focus......Page 205 9.7.2 Corrective focus......Page 206 9.8 Conclusion......Page 208 Notes......Page 209 10.1 Introduction......Page 210 10.3 The alpha......Page 211 10.4 The tonal structure of Utterances with one alpha......Page 212 10.5.2 L.........Page 214 10.5.3 The alpha-final accent......Page 215 10.5.4 Loss of ...-final accent......Page 216 10.6 An OT analysis of the tonal structure......Page 217 10.6.1 NoRise......Page 220 10.7 More than one alpha: secondary association and interpolation......Page 222 10.8 The Intermediate Phrase......Page 224 10.9 The Utterance: L... and H.........Page 226 10.10.1 The left edge of the focus constituent......Page 229 10.10.2 The right edge of the focus constituent......Page 230 10.11 Conclusion......Page 231 Notes......Page 232 11.1 Introduction......Page 234 11.2 Stockholm Swedish......Page 235 11.2.1 Focus......Page 237 Timing of targets......Page 238 11.2.2 Compounds......Page 239 11.3 An OT analysis of Swedish tone......Page 241 11.4.1 Lexical tone......Page 242 11.4.2 The intonational tones......Page 244 11.4.3 Norwegian focus......Page 246 11.5 An argument for prelinking......Page 247 11.6.1 Stød......Page 248 11.6.2 The intonational pitch accent in Danish......Page 249 Notes......Page 251 12.1 Introduction......Page 253 12.2 Tonogenesis......Page 255 12.3 The first stage......Page 257 12.4 Improving the interrogative contrast......Page 260 12.4.1 Final interrogatives......Page 261 12.4.2 Non-final interrogatives......Page 262 12.4.3 The rise of NORISE......Page 263 12.4.4 NORISE is Iota-final syllables......Page 265 12.5 Improving the contrast in lota-final declaratives......Page 266 12.6 Outside the focus......Page 268 12.7 Other reinterpretations......Page 269 12.7.1 Tongeren delay......Page 270 12.7.3 Venlo’s lota-final interrogatives......Page 272 12.8 Conclusion......Page 274 Notes......Page 276 13.1 Introduction......Page 278 13.2 Prosodic phrasing......Page 279 13.2.1 Basic patterns......Page 280 13.2.2 ω-final accents......Page 283 13.2.4 Variation in medial accents......Page 285 13.2.5 Variation in φ-structure......Page 288 13.2.7 Phrasing: Summary......Page 290 13.3 The tonal analysis......Page 291 13.3.1 Downstep......Page 292 13.3.2 Cliché mélodique......Page 295 13.3.3 Violating NOCLASH......Page 296 13.3.4 Summary of the tonal grammar......Page 297 Notes......Page 298 14.1 Introduction......Page 299 14.2 The distribution of pitch accents......Page 300 14.2.1 Deaccentuation in the lexicon......Page 301 14.3 Postlexical rhythm: φ-structure......Page 303 14.3.1 Bracketing effects......Page 305 14.3.2 Why postlexical cyclicity does not work......Page 307 14.3.3 Procliticized φs......Page 310 14.3.4 Focus and φ......Page 311 14.4.1 VP-Internal lota-boundaries......Page 312 14.4.2 Introducing size constraints......Page 314 14.4.3 Incorporated and encliticized lotas......Page 315 14.5 Between the φ and the lota......Page 317 14.5.1 Focus and lota......Page 318 Notes......Page 319 15.2.1 The fall, the fall–rise, the high rise, and the low rise......Page 321 15.2.2 The high level, the half-completed rise, and the half-completed fall......Page 324 15.2.3 The low low rise, scathing intonation, and the low level......Page 325 15.2.4 NoSlump......Page 326 15.3 Pre-nuclear pitch accents......Page 327 15.4 Onsets......Page 329 15.5.1 Pre-nuclear fall-rise......Page 330 15.5.2 Delay......Page 331 15.5.3 Downstep......Page 332 15.5.4 Leading H......Page 335 15.6 The vocative chant......Page 338 15.7 Tone Copy......Page 340 15.8 Some comparisons with Pierrehumbert and Beckman’s analysis......Page 341 15.9 Conclusion......Page 344 Notes......Page 345 References......Page 346 Index......Page 370 In This Comprehensive Survey, Carlos Gussenhoven Provides An Up-to-date Overview Of Research Into Tone And Intonation, Discussing Why Speakers Vary Their Pitch, What Pitch Variations Mean, And How They Are Integrated Into Our Grammars. He Also Explains Why Intonation In Part Appears To Be Universally Understood, While At Other Times It Is Language-specific And Can Lead To Misunderstandings.--book Jacket. Pitch In Humans And Machines -- Pitch In Language I : Stress And Intonation -- Pitch In Language Ii : Tone -- Intonation And Language -- Paralinguistics : Three Biological Codes -- Downtrends -- Tonal Structures -- Intonation In Optimality Theory -- Northern Biskaian Basque -- Tokyo Japanese -- Scandinavian -- The Central Franconian Tone -- French -- English I : Phrasing And Accent Distribution -- English Ii : Tonal Structure. Carlos Gussenhoven. Includes Bibliographical References (p. 321-344) And Index. Using examples from a wide variety of languages, this book reveals why speakers vary their pitch, what these variations mean, and how they are integrated into our grammars. All languages use modulations in pitch to form utterances. Pitch modulation encodes lexical "tone" to signal boundaries between morphemes or words, and encodes "intonation" to give words and sentences an additional meaning that isn't part of their original sense. Tone and Intonation are two types of pitch variation, which are used to give shape to utterances. In this book, Carlos Gussenhoven provides an up-to-date survey of research into tone and intonation, discussing why speakers vary their pitch, what pitch variations mean, and how they are integrated into our grammars.