The Phonology and Morphology of Arabic (The ^APhonology of the World's Languages)

This is an account of the phonology and morphology of modern spoken Arabic, the first to be published in any language and based largely on the author's research. Dr Watson's approach is theoretically innovative and aware, but accessible to Arabic language specialists outside linguistics. Broad in coverage, this is an important and pioneering book. - ;This book is the first comprehensive account of the phonology and morphology of Arabic. It is a pioneering work of scholarship based on the author's research in the region. Arabic is a Semitic language spoken by some 250 million people in an area Contents......Page 6 Preface......Page 12 Acknowledgements......Page 13 Abbreviations......Page 14 1.1.1. Phonology......Page 16 1.1.2. Morphology......Page 18 1.1.3. Syntax......Page 19 1.2. Arabic within Central Semitic......Page 20 1.2.1. The spread of Arabic......Page 21 1.2.2. The development of Arabic......Page 22 1.2.3. The emergence of a standard language and diglossia......Page 23 1.3. The present study......Page 24 2.1. Consonants......Page 28 2.1.4. Interdentals......Page 29 2.1.6. Palatals......Page 30 2.1.8. Velars......Page 31 2.1.9. Uvulars......Page 32 2.1.11. Glottals......Page 33 2.2. The consonantal system of San’ani......Page 34 2.3. The consonantal system of Cairene......Page 35 2.4.1. Short vowels......Page 36 2.4.3. Diphthongs......Page 37 2.4.4. Cairene long vowels......Page 38 3. PHONOLOGICAL FEATURES......Page 39 3.1. Root features......Page 41 3.3. Laryngeal features......Page 42 3.4. Place/articulator features......Page 43 3.4.1. Primary versus non-primary place......Page 44 3.4.2. [Labial]......Page 46 3.4.3. The [coronal]–front vowel debate......Page 47 3.4.4. [Dorsal]......Page 50 3.4.5. [Guttural]......Page 52 3.4.6. [Coronal]......Page 54 3.4.7. The representation of the pharyngealized coronals......Page 57 3.4.8. The representation of the uvulars......Page 58 3.4.9. The representation of the pharyngeals......Page 59 3.4.10. The phonetic interpretation of non-primary [guttural]......Page 60 3.4.11. The representation of the vowels......Page 62 3.5. Conclusion......Page 63 4.1. Association and the syllabic skeleton......Page 65 4.2. Syllable structure......Page 71 4.3. Superheavy and ‘super-superheavy’ syllable types......Page 73 4.4. Syllabification......Page 76 4.4.1. Syllable repair processes......Page 79 4.4.2. Syncope......Page 85 4.5. Conclusion......Page 92 5.1.1. Word stress patterns in Cairene......Page 94 5.1.2. Word stress patterns in San’ani......Page 96 5.2. The theoretical model......Page 99 5.2.2. The iambic/trochaic division......Page 101 5.2.3. Degenerate feet and the minimal word......Page 103 5.2.4. Extrametricality......Page 105 5.2.5. Extrasyllabicity......Page 107 5.3. Word stress in Cairene......Page 108 5.3.1. Exceptions to the stress algorithm......Page 111 5.4. Word stress in San’ani......Page 113 5.4.1. Domain-final CVVC/CVCC......Page 116 5.4.2. Domain-final CVV......Page 125 5.4.3. Suffixed words with pre-antepenultimate CVV or CVG syllables......Page 127 5.4.4. Stress fluctuation......Page 129 5.4.5. Secondary stress......Page 134 5.5. Conclusion......Page 136 6. MORPHOLOGY......Page 137 6.1. The morpheme......Page 139 6.2. Root-and-pattern morphology......Page 140 6.3. Non-concatenative morphology......Page 141 6.4. Prosodic morphology......Page 143 6.4.1. The minimal word......Page 144 6.4.2. Basic stems......Page 145 6.5. Level-one verbal morphology......Page 148 6.5.1. Finite verb stems......Page 152 6.5.2. Forms II, III, and IV......Page 153 6.5.3. Forms VII, VIII, IX, and X......Page 154 6.5.4. Forms V and VI......Page 156 6.5.6. Non-triliteral verbs......Page 157 6.5.7. Verbal derivatives......Page 167 6.6. Level-one nominal morphology......Page 179 6.7. Conclusion......Page 188 7. MORPHOLOGY 2......Page 190 7.1.1. Affixation of level-two verbal morphemes......Page 191 7.1.2. Affixation of further morphemes......Page 197 7.1.3. Allomorphy......Page 199 7.2.1. Affixation of level-two nominal morphemes......Page 201 7.2.2. Allomorphy......Page 203 7.2.3. The -i morpheme in Cairene......Page 205 7.2.4. A homophonous morpheme in San’ani......Page 207 7.3.1. Turkish suffixes......Page 208 7.3.2. Additional native suffixes......Page 210 7.3.4. Additional native suffixes......Page 213 7.4. Conclusion......Page 214 8. LEXICAL PHONOLOGY......Page 215 8.1.1. Pre-suffix vowel lengthening (in CA)......Page 216 8.1.2. y-strengthening (in CA)......Page 218 8.1.3. n-strengthening......Page 220 8.1.4. *V–V resolution in the inflection of final-weak stems......Page 221 8.1.5. Diphthong reduction and n-strengthening (in SA)......Page 223 8.1.6. Pre-{negative} degemination (in SA)......Page 225 8.1.7. h-disassociation (in SA)......Page 226 8.2. Melodic processes......Page 229 8.2.2. Assimilation of -l of the definite article......Page 231 8.2.3. Assimilation of t- of the detransitivizing prefix......Page 237 8.3. Conclusion......Page 240 9.1.1. Unstressed long vowel shortening (in CA)......Page 241 9.1.2. Resolution of V–V sequences......Page 243 9.1.3. Gemination of clitic-final sonorant (in SA)......Page 249 9.2.1. Nasal place assimilation......Page 250 9.2.2. Coronal sonorant assimilation......Page 252 9.2.3. Assimilation of adjacent sibilants......Page 255 9.2.4. Coronal place assimilation......Page 257 9.2.5. Voicing assimilation (in CA)......Page 260 9.2.6. Voicing, devoicing, and geminate devoicing (in SA)......Page 263 9.2.7. Intervocalic voicing (in SA)......Page 271 9.2.8. Palatalization......Page 272 9.2.9. Labialization of [labial] and [dorsal] consonants (in SA)......Page 278 9.2.10. Labialization of [dorsal] vowels......Page 280 9.3. Conclusion......Page 281 10. EMPHASIS......Page 283 10.1. The articulatory correlates of emphasis......Page 284 10.3. [Guttural] spread......Page 285 10.4.1. Emphasis spread from the primary coronal emphatics in Cairene......Page 288 10.4.2. Emphasis spread from the secondary emphatics......Page 290 10.4.3. Analysis......Page 291 10.4.4. Spread from the pharyngeals and the guttural off-glide......Page 292 10.5. Enhancing features and emphasis spread in San’ani......Page 294 10.5.1. [Labial] spread and transparent segments......Page 297 10.5.2. The directionality of [labial] spread......Page 299 10.5.3. The pharyngeals......Page 300 10.6 Conclusion......Page 301 References......Page 302 H......Page 314 W......Page 315 Z......Page 316 D......Page 317 L......Page 318 P......Page 319 S......Page 320 V......Page 321 Y......Page 322 Contents 6 Preface 12 Acknowledgements 13 Abbreviations 14 1. INTRODUCTION 16 1.1. The Semitic language family 16 1.1.1. Phonology 16 1.1.2. Morphology 18 1.1.3. Syntax 19 1.2. Arabic within Central Semitic 20 1.2.1. The spread of Arabic 21 1.2.2. The development of Arabic 22 1.2.3. The emergence of a standard language and diglossia 23 1.3. The present study 24 2. THE PHONEME SYSTEM OF ARABIC 28 2.1. Consonants 28 2.1.1. Bilabials 29 2.1.2. Labio-dental 29 2.1.3. Dentals 29 2.1.4. Interdentals 29 2.1.5. Sibilants 30 2.1.6. Palatals 30 2.1.7. Liquids 31 2.1.8. Velars 31 2.1.9. Uvulars 32 2.1.10. Pharyngeals 33 2.1.11. Glottals 33 2.1.12. Glides 34 2.2. The consonantal system of San’ani 34 2.3. The consonantal system of Cairene 35 2.4. Vowels 36 2.4.1. Short vowels 36 2.4.2. Long vowels 37 2.4.3. Diphthongs 37 2.4.4. Cairene long vowels 38 3. PHONOLOGICAL FEATURES 39 3.1. Root features 41 3.2. Stricture features 42 3.3. Laryngeal features 42 3.4. Place/articulator features 43 3.4.1. Primary versus non-primary place 44 3.4.2. [Labial] 46 3.4.3. The [coronal]–front vowel debate 47 3.4.4. [Dorsal] 50 3.4.5. [Guttural] 52 3.4.6. [Coronal] 54 3.4.7. The representation of the pharyngealized coronals 57 3.4.8. The representation of the uvulars 58 3.4.9. The representation of the pharyngeals 59 3.4.10. The phonetic interpretation of non-primary [guttural] 60 3.4.11. The representation of the vowels 62 3.5. Conclusion 63 4. SYLLABLE STRUCTURE AND SYLLABIFICATION 65 4.1. Association and the syllabic skeleton 65 4.2. Syllable structure 71 4.3. Superheavy and ‘super-superheavy’ syllable types 73 4.4. Syllabification 76 4.4.1. Syllable repair processes 79 4.4.2. Syncope 85 4.5. Conclusion 92 5. WORD STRESS 94 5.1. Word stress patterns 94 5.1.1. Word stress patterns in Cairene 94 5.1.2. Word stress patterns in San’ani 96 5.2. The theoretical model 99 5.2.1. The moraic model 101 5.2.2. The iambic/trochaic division 101 5.2.3. Degenerate feet and the minimal word 103 5.2.4. Extrametricality 105 5.2.5. Extrasyllabicity 107 5.3. Word stress in Cairene 108 5.3.1. Exceptions to the stress algorithm 111 5.4. Word stress in San’ani 113 5.4.1. Domain-final CVVC/CVCC 116 5.4.2. Domain-final CVV 125 5.4.3. Suffixed words with pre-antepenultimate CVV or CVG syllables 127 5.4.4. Stress fluctuation 129 5.4.5. Secondary stress 134 5.5. Conclusion 136 6. MORPHOLOGY 137 6.1. The morpheme 139 6.2. Root-and-pattern morphology 140 6.3. Non-concatenative morphology 141 6.4. Prosodic morphology 143 6.4.1. The minimal word 144 6.4.2. Basic stems 145 6.5. Level-one verbal morphology 148 6.5.1. Finite verb stems 152 6.5.2. Forms II, III, and IV 153 6.5.3. Forms VII, VIII, IX, and X 154 6.5.4. Forms V and VI 156 6.5.5. Form I imperfect template 157 6.5.6. Non-triliteral verbs 157 6.5.7. Verbal derivatives 167 6.6. Level-one nominal morphology 179 6.7. Conclusion 188 7. MORPHOLOGY 2 190 7.1. Level-two verbal morphology 191 7.1.1. Affixation of level-two verbal morphemes 191 7.1.2. Affixation of further morphemes 197 7.1.3. Allomorphy 199 7.2. Level-two nominal and adjectival morphology 201 7.2.1. Affixation of level-two nominal morphemes 201 7.2.2. Allomorphy 203 7.2.3. The -i morpheme in Cairene 205 7.2.4. A homophonous morpheme in San’ani 207 7.3. Additional suffixal morphemes in Cairene 208 7.3.1. Turkish suffixes 208 7.3.2. Additional native suffixes 210 7.3.3. Additional suffixal morphemes in San’ani 213 7.3.4. Additional native suffixes 213 7.4. Conclusion 214 8. LEXICAL PHONOLOGY 215 8.1. Prosodic processes 216 8.1.1. Pre-suffix vowel lengthening (in CA) 216 8.1.2. y-strengthening (in CA) 218 8.1.3. n-strengthening 220 8.1.4. *V–V resolution in the inflection of final-weak stems 221 8.1.5. Diphthong reduction and n-strengthening (in SA) 223 8.1.6. Pre-{negative} degemination (in SA) 225 8.1.7. h-disassociation (in SA) 226 8.2. Melodic processes 229 8.2.1. The role of the Obligatory Contour Principle 231 8.2.2. Assimilation of -l of the definite article 231 8.2.3. Assimilation of t- of the detransitivizing prefix 237 8.3. Conclusion 240 9. POST-LEXICAL PHONOLOGY 241 9.1. Prosodic processes 241 9.1.1. Unstressed long vowel shortening (in CA) 241 9.1.2. Resolution of V–V sequences 243 9.1.3. Gemination of clitic-final sonorant (in SA) 249 9.2. Melodic processes 250 9.2.1. Nasal place assimilation 250 9.2.2. Coronal sonorant assimilation 252 9.2.3. Assimilation of adjacent sibilants 255 9.2.4. Coronal place assimilation 257 9.2.5. Voicing assimilation (in CA) 260 9.2.6. Voicing, devoicing, and geminate devoicing (in SA) 263 9.2.7. Intervocalic voicing (in SA) 271 9.2.8. Palatalization 272 9.2.9. Labialization of [labial] and [dorsal] consonants (in SA) 278 9.2.10. Labialization of [dorsal] vowels 280 9.3. Conclusion 281 10. EMPHASIS 283 10.1. The articulatory correlates of emphasis 284 10.2. The acoustic correlates of emphasis 285 10.3. [Guttural] spread 285 10.4. The domain of emphasis spread 288 10.4.1. Emphasis spread from the primary coronal emphatics in Cairene 288 10.4.2. Emphasis spread from the secondary emphatics 290 10.4.3. Analysis 291 10.4.4. Spread from the pharyngeals and the guttural off-glide 292 10.5. Enhancing features and emphasis spread in San’ani 294 10.5.1. [Labial] spread and transparent segments 297 10.5.2. The directionality of [labial] spread 299 10.5.3. The pharyngeals 300 10.6 Conclusion 301 References 302 Index of Authors 314 A 314 B 314 C 314 D 314 E 314 F 314 G 314 H 314 I 315 J 315 K 315 L 315 M 315 N 315 O 315 P 315 R 315 S 315 T 315 V 315 W 315 Y 316 Z 316 Index of Subjects 317 A 317 B 317 C 317 D 317 E 318 F 318 G 318 H 318 I 318 L 318 M 319 N 319 O 319 P 319 R 320 S 320 T 321 U 321 V 321 W 322 X 322 Y 322 This book is the first comprehensive account of the phonology and morphology of Arabic. It is a pioneering work of scholarship, based on the author's research in the region. Arabic is a Semitic language spoken by some 250 million people in an area stretching from Morocco in the West to parts of Iran in the East. Apart from its great intrinsic interest, the importance of the language for phonological and morphological theory lies, as the author shows, in its rich root-and-pattern morphology and its large set of guttural consonants. Dr Watson focuses on two eastern dialects, Cairene and San'ani. Cairene is typical of an advanced urban Mediterranean dialect and has a cultural importance throughout the Arab world; it is also the variety learned by most foreign speakers of Arabic. San'ani, spoken in Yemen, is representative of a conservative peninsula dialect. In addition the book makes extensive reference to other dialects as well as to classical and Modern Standard Arabic. The volume opens with an overview of the history and varieties of Arabic, and of the study of phonology within the Arab linguistic tradition. Successive chapters then cover dialectal differences and similarities, and the position of Arabic within Semitic; the phoneme system and the representation of phonological features; the syllable and syllabification; word stress; derivational morphology; inflectional morphology; lexical phonology; and post-lexical phonology. The Phonology and Morphology of Arabic will be of great interest to Arabists and comparative Semiticists, as well as to phonologists, morphologists, and linguists more generally.