The Periodic Table - Nature's Building Blocks - An Introduction to the Naturally Occurring Elements, Their Origins and Their Uses

The Periodic Table: Nature's Building Blocks: An Introduction To The Naturally Occurring Elements, Their Origins And Their Uses Addresses How Minerals And Their Elements Are Used, Where The Elements Come From In Nature, And Their Applications In Modern Society. The Book Is Structured In A Logical Way Using The Periodic Table As Its Outline. It Begins With An Introduction Of The History Of The Periodic Table And A Short Introduction To Mineralogy. Element Sections Contain Their History, How They Were Discovered, And A Description Of The Minerals That Contain The Element. Sections Conclude With Our Current Use Of Each Element. Abundant Color Photos Of Some Of The Most Characteristic Minerals Containing The Element Accompany The Discussion. Ideal For Students And Researchers Working In Inorganic Chemistry, Minerology And Geology, This Book Provides The Foundational Knowledge Needed For Successful Study And Work In This Exciting Area. Describes The Link Between Geology, Minerals And Chemistry To Show How Chemistry Relies On Elements From Nature Emphasizes The Connection Between Geology, Mineralogy And Daily Life, Showing How Minerals Contribute To The Things We Use And In Our Modern Economy Contains Abundant Color Photos Of Each Mineral That Bring The Periodic Table To Life The Periodic Table: Nature’s Building Blocks Copyright Dedication Contents Preface 1 History of the periodic table and the structure of the atom 1.1 History of the period table 1.1.1 Hennig Brand (c.1630–1692 or c.1710) 1.1.2 Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier (August 26, 1743 to May 8, 1794) 1.1.3 William Prout (January 15, 1785 to April 9, 1850) 1.1.4 Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner (December 13, 1780 to March 24, 1849) 1.1.5 Alexandre-Emile Béguyer de Chancourtois (January 20, 1820 to November 14, 1886) 1.1.6 John Newlands (November 26, 1837 to July 29, 1898) 1.1.7 Julius Lothar Meyer (August 19, 1830 to April 11, 1895) 1.1.8 Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev [February 8, 1834 to February 2, 1907 (OS January 27, 1834 to January 20, 1907)] 1.1.9 William Odling (September 5, 1829 to February 17, 1921) 1.1.10 Shortcomings of early versions of the periodic table so far 1.1.11 Frederick Soddy (September 2, 1877 to September 22, 1956) 1.1.12 Henry Moseley (November 23, 1887 to August 10, 1915) 1.1.13 Glenn T. Seaborg (April 19, 1912 to February 25, 1999) 1.2 Short history and basic properties of the atom 1.2.1 History 1.2.2 Structure and properties References Further reading 2 Minerals, ores, and mining 2.1 Short introduction to mineralogy 2.2 Advanced chemical analytical techniques 2.2.1 Electron microscopy 2.2.1.1 Transmission electron microscope 2.2.1.2 Scanning electron microscope 2.2.1.3 Sample preparation 2.2.1.4 Electron microprobe 2.2.1.5 Limitations 2.2.2 X-ray fluorescence 2.2.2.1 Energy dispersive spectrometry 2.2.2.2 Wavelength dispersive spectrometry 2.2.2.3 Sample preparation 2.2.2.4 Extracting analytical results 2.2.3 X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy 2.2.3.1 Chemical states and chemical shift 2.2.3.2 Quantitative accuracy and precision 2.2.3.3 Analysis time 2.2.3.4 Detection limits 2.2.3.5 Degradation during analysis 2.2.3.6 Peak identification 2.2.3.7 Charge referencing insulators 2.2.3.8 Peak-fitting 2.2.4 Inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy 2.2.5 Inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry 2.2.5.1 Sample introduction 2.2.5.2 Transfer of ions into vacuum 2.2.5.3 Ion optics 2.2.5.4 Collision reaction cell and integrated collisional reaction cell 2.3 Natural abundances of the elements in the Earth’s crust 2.3.1 Earth 2.3.2 Crust 2.3.3 Rare earth elements 2.3.4 Mantle 2.3.5 Core 2.4 Ore genesis 2.4.1 Ore-forming processes 2.4.1.1 Endogenous 2.4.1.1.1 Magmatic processes 2.4.1.1.2 Hydrothermal processes 2.4.1.2 Sulfide deposition 2.4.1.3 Classification of ore deposits 2.4.2 Metamorphic processes 2.4.3 Sedimentary or surficial processes (exogenous) 2.5 Mining 2.5.1 History 2.5.1.1 Prehistoric mining 2.5.1.2 Ancient Egypt 2.5.1.3 Ancient Greek and Roman mining 2.5.1.4 Medieval Europe 2.5.1.5 The Americas 2.5.1.6 Asia 2.5.1.7 Modern period 2.5.2 Mine development and life cycle 2.5.3 Mining techniques 2.5.3.1 Surface mining 2.5.3.2 Underground mining 2.5.3.3 Processing 2.6 Environmental impact 2.6.1 Erosion 2.6.2 Sinkholes 2.6.3 Water pollution 2.6.4 Acid rock drainage 2.6.5 Treatment 2.6.6 Effect on biodiversity 2.6.6.1 Aquatic organisms 2.6.6.2 Terrestrial organisms 2.6.7 Waste 2.6.8 Effects of mine pollution on humans A.1 Elements not included (not occurring as minerals or only existing as synthetic elements) A.2 What is described for each element? A.2.1 Discovery A.2.2 Mining, production, and major minerals A.2.3 Chemistry A.2.4 Major uses References Further reading 3 Periods 1 and 2 3.1 1 H — hydrogen 3.1.1 Discovery 3.1.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 3.1.3 Chemistry 3.1.3.1 Covalent and organic compounds 3.1.3.2 Hydrides 3.1.3.3 Protons and acids 3.1.3.4 pH 3.1.3.5 Hydrogen preparation 3.1.4 Major uses 3.2 3 Li — Lithium 3.2.1 Discovery 3.2.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 3.2.3 Chemistry 3.2.3.1 Reaction in air, oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen 3.2.3.2 Reaction with halogens 3.2.3.3 Reaction with acids 3.2.3.4 Organolithium compounds 3.2.4 Major uses 3.3 4 Be — Beryllium 3.3.1 Discovery 3.3.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 3.3.3 Chemistry 3.3.3.1 Reaction of beryllium in air, oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen 3.3.3.2 Reaction with the halogens 3.3.3.3 Aqueous chemistry 3.3.3.4 Reaction with acids 3.3.3.5 Reaction with bases 3.3.3.6 Organometallic chemistry 3.3.4 Major uses 3.4 5 B — Boron 3.4.1 Discovery 3.4.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 3.4.3 Chemistry 3.4.3.1 Reaction with acids 3.4.3.2 Reaction in air, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen 3.4.3.3 Reaction with halogens 3.4.3.4 Boron compounds 3.4.3.5 Metal borides 3.4.3.6 Boron hydrides (boranes) 3.4.3.7 B-O compounds 3.4.3.8 Organoboron chemistry 3.4.4 Major uses 3.5 6 C — Carbon 3.5.1 Discovery 3.5.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 3.5.3 Chemistry 3.5.3.1 Reaction in air, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen 3.5.3.2 Reaction with halogens 3.5.3.3 Reaction with oxidizing acids 3.5.3.4 Carbides 3.5.3.5 Carbon-oxygen compounds 3.5.3.6 Carbon-nitrogen compounds 3.5.4 Major uses 3.6 7 N — Nitrogen 3.6.1 Discovery 3.6.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 3.6.3 Chemistry 3.6.3.1 Reaction in air, oxygen, and hydrogen 3.6.3.2 Reaction with halogens 3.6.3.3 Nitrides 3.6.3.4 Hydrides 3.6.3.5 Oxides 3.6.4 Major uses 3.7 8 O — Oxygen 3.7.1 Discovery 3.7.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 3.7.3 Chemistry 3.7.3.1 Organic compounds 3.7.4 Major uses 3.8 9 F — Fluorine 3.8.1 Discovery 3.8.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 3.8.3 Chemistry 3.8.3.1 Compounds of fluorine 3.8.4 Major uses References Further reading 4 Period 3 4.1 11 Na — Sodium 4.1.1 Discovery 4.1.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 4.1.3 Chemistry 4.1.3.1 Reaction of sodium with water 4.1.3.2 Reaction of sodium with air 4.1.3.3 Reaction of sodium with the halogens 4.1.3.4 Reaction of sodium with acids 4.1.3.5 Reaction with bases 4.1.3.6 Compounds of sodium 4.1.4 Major uses 4.2 12 Mg — Magnesium 4.2.1 Discovery 4.2.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 4.2.3 Chemistry 4.2.3.1 Reaction with air, oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen 4.2.3.2 Reaction with halogens 4.2.3.3 Reaction with acids 4.2.3.4 Organomagnesium compounds 4.2.4 Major uses 4.3 13 Al — Aluminum 4.3.1 Discovery 4.3.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 4.3.2.1 Bayer process 4.3.2.2 Hall–Héroult process 4.3.3 Chemistry 4.3.3.1 Reaction with air, oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen 4.3.3.2 Reaction with halogens 4.3.3.3 Reaction with acids 4.3.3.4 Reaction with bases 4.3.3.5 Organoaluminum compounds 4.3.4 Major uses 4.4 14 Si — Silicon 4.4.1 Discovery 4.4.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 4.4.3 Chemistry 4.4.3.1 Reaction with air, oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen 4.4.3.2 Reaction with halogens 4.4.3.3 Reaction with acids and bases 4.4.3.4 Organosilicon compounds 4.4.4 Major uses 4.5 15 P — Phosphorus 4.5.1 Discovery 4.5.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 4.5.3 Chemistry 4.5.3.1 Reaction in air, oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen 4.5.3.2 Reaction with halogens 4.5.3.3 Reactions with other elements 4.5.3.4 Reactions with aqueous acids and bases 4.5.3.5 Phosphate 4.5.3.6 Organophosphorus compounds 4.5.4 Major uses 4.6 16 S — Sulfur 4.6.1 Discovery 4.6.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 4.6.3 Chemistry 4.6.3.1 Oxides, nitrides, and hydrides 4.6.3.2 Halides 4.6.3.3 Reaction with acids and bases 4.6.3.4 Organosulfur compounds 4.6.4 Major uses 4.7 17 Cl — Chlorine 4.7.1 Discovery 4.7.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 4.7.3 Chemistry 4.7.3.1 Reaction with air, oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen 4.7.3.2 Reaction with other halogens 4.7.3.3 Reaction with acids and bases 4.7.3.4 Organic compounds of chlorine 4.7.4 Major uses References Further reading 5 Period 4 5.1 19 K — Potassium 5.1.1 Discovery 5.1.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 5.1.3 Chemistry 5.1.3.1 Reaction with air, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen 5.1.3.2 Reaction of potassium with the halogens 5.1.3.3 Reaction of potassium with acids and bases 5.1.3.4 Organopotassium compounds 5.1.4 Major uses 5.2 20 Ca — Calcium 5.2.1 Discovery 5.2.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 5.2.3 Chemistry 5.2.3.1 Reaction in air, oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen 5.2.3.2 Reaction with halogens 5.2.3.3 Reaction with acids and bases 5.2.3.4 Organocalcium compounds 5.2.4 Major uses 5.3 21 Sc — Scandium 5.3.1 Discovery 5.3.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 5.3.3 Chemistry 5.3.3.1 Oxides and hydroxides 5.3.3.2 Halides 5.3.3.3 Hydrides and sulfides 5.3.3.4 Sulfates and nitrates 5.3.3.5 Complexes 5.3.3.6 Organometallic compounds 5.3.4 Major uses 5.4 22 Ti — Titanium 5.4.1 Discovery 5.4.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 5.4.3 Chemistry 5.4.3.1 Oxides 5.4.3.2 Chalcogenides 5.4.3.3 Hydrides, carbides, borides, nitrides, and phosphides 5.4.3.4 Halides 5.4.3.5 Oxyanions 5.4.3.6 Complexes 5.4.3.7 Organotitanium compounds 5.4.4 Major uses 5.5 23 V — Vanadium 5.5.1 Discovery 5.5.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 5.5.3 Chemistry 5.5.3.1 Oxides 5.5.3.2 Carbide and nitride 5.5.3.3 Halides 5.5.3.4 Sulfate and phosphate 5.5.3.5 Vanadates 5.5.3.6 Organovanadium compounds 5.5.4 Major uses 5.6 24 Cr — Chromium 5.6.1 Discovery 5.6.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 5.6.3 Chemistry 5.6.3.1 Oxides and oxoanions 5.6.3.2 Hydrides, carbides, nitrides, and borides 5.6.3.3 Sulfides and chalcogenides 5.6.3.4 Halides 5.6.3.5 Sulfate, nitrate, and phosphate 5.6.3.6 Organochromium compounds 5.6.4 Major uses 5.7 25 Mn — Manganese 5.7.1 Discovery 5.7.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 5.7.3 Chemistry 5.7.3.1 Oxides and hydroxides 5.7.3.1.1 Chemical manganese dioxide 5.7.3.1.2 Electrolytic manganese dioxide 5.7.3.2 Halides 5.7.3.3 Nitride and sulfide 5.7.3.4 Sulfate and carbonate 5.7.3.5 Organomanganese compounds 5.7.4 Major uses 5.8 26 Fe — Iron 5.8.1 Discovery 5.8.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 5.8.3 Chemistry 5.8.3.1 Oxides and hydroxides 5.8.3.2 Chalcogenide, hydride, boride, and nitride 5.8.3.3 Halides 5.8.3.4 Solution chemistry 5.8.3.5 Organoiron compounds 5.8.4 Major uses 5.9 27 Co — Cobalt 5.9.1 Discovery 5.9.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 5.9.3 Chemistry 5.9.3.1 Oxides 5.9.3.2 Chalcogenides 5.9.3.3 Halides 5.9.3.4 Carbonate, sulfate, nitrate, and phosphate 5.9.3.5 Organocobalt compounds 5.9.4 Major uses 5.10 28 Ni — Nickel 5.10.1 Discovery 5.10.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 5.10.3 Chemistry 5.10.3.1 Oxides and hydroxides 5.10.3.2 Chalcogenides 5.10.3.3 Hydrides, borides, and silicides 5.10.3.4 Halides 5.10.3.5 Sulfate, carbonate, nitrate, nitrite, and chromate 5.10.3.6 Organonickel compounds 5.10.4 Major uses 5.11 29 Cu — Copper 5.11.1 Discovery 5.11.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 5.11.3 Chemistry 5.11.3.1 Oxides and hydroxides 5.11.3.2 Chalcogenides 5.11.3.3 Hydrides 5.11.3.4 Halides 5.11.3.5 Carbonate, sulfate, nitrate, and phosphate 5.11.3.6 Organocopper compounds 5.11.4 Major uses 5.12 30 Zn — Zinc 5.12.1 Discovery 5.12.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 5.12.3 Chemistry 5.12.3.1 Oxide and hydroxide 5.12.3.2 Chalcogenides 5.12.3.3 Nitride and hydride 5.12.3.4 Halides 5.12.3.5 Organozinc compounds 5.12.4 Major uses 5.13 31 Ga — Gallium 5.13.1 Discovery 5.13.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 5.13.3 Chemistry 5.13.3.1 Reaction with air, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen 5.13.3.2 Reactions with sulfur 5.13.3.3 Reaction with halogens 5.13.3.4 Reactions with acids and bases 5.13.3.5 Organogallium compounds 5.13.4 Major uses 5.14 32 Ge — Germanium 5.14.1 Discovery 5.14.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 5.14.3 Chemistry 5.14.3.1 Reaction with air, oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen 5.14.3.2 Reaction with halogens 5.14.3.3 Reaction with acids and bases 5.14.3.4 Organogermanium compounds 5.14.4 Major uses 5.15 33 As — Arsenic 5.15.1 Discovery 5.15.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 5.15.3 Chemistry 5.15.3.1 Reaction in air, oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen 5.15.3.2 Reaction with halogens 5.15.3.3 Reaction with acids and bases 5.15.3.4 Organoarsenic compounds 5.15.4 Major uses 5.16 34 Se — Selenium 5.16.1 Discovery 5.16.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 5.16.3 Chemistry 5.16.3.1 Reaction in air, oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen 5.16.3.2 Reaction with halogens 5.16.3.3 Reaction with acids and bases 5.16.3.4 Organoselenium compounds 5.16.4 Major uses 5.17 35 Br — Bromine 5.17.1 Discovery 5.17.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 5.17.3 Chemistry 5.17.3.1 Reaction with air, oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen 5.17.3.2 Reaction with halogens 5.17.3.3 Reaction with acids and bases 5.17.3.4 Organobromine compounds 5.17.4 Major uses References Further reading 6 Period 5 6.1 37 Rb — Rubidium 6.1.1 Discovery 6.1.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 6.1.3 Chemistry 6.1.3.1 Reactions with air and water 6.1.3.2 Halides 6.1.3.3 Other compounds 6.1.3.4 Organorubidium compounds 6.1.4 Major uses 6.2 38 Sr — Strontium 6.2.1 Discovery 6.2.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 6.2.3 Chemistry 6.2.3.1 Reactions with air, nitrogen, and hydrogen 6.2.3.2 Reactions with the halogens 6.2.3.3 Reactions with acids 6.2.3.4 Organostrontium compounds and related complexes 6.2.4 Major uses 6.3 39 Y — Yttrium 6.3.1 Discovery 6.3.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 6.3.3 Chemistry 6.3.3.1 Oxides 6.3.3.2 Halides 6.3.3.3 Hydrides, nitrides, and phosphides 6.3.3.4 Borides 6.3.3.5 Sulfate and nitrate 6.3.3.6 Organoyttrium compounds 6.3.4 Major uses 6.4 40 Zr — Zirconium 6.4.1 Discovery 6.4.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 6.4.3 Chemistry 6.4.3.1 Oxides, nitrides, carbides, and hydrides 6.4.3.2 Borides 6.4.3.3 Halides and pseudohalides 6.4.3.4 Organozirconium compounds 6.4.4 Major uses 6.5 41 Nb — Niobium 6.5.1 Discovery 6.5.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 6.5.3 Chemistry 6.5.3.1 Oxides 6.5.3.2 Halides 6.5.3.3 Chalcogenides 6.5.3.4 Carbides and nitrides 6.5.3.5 Organoniobium compounds 6.5.4 Major uses 6.6 42 Mo — Molybdenum 6.6.1 Discovery 6.6.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 6.6.3 Chemistry 6.6.3.1 Oxide, carbide, nitride, and silicide 6.6.3.2 Halides 6.6.3.3 Organomolybdenum compounds 6.6.4 Major uses 6.7 44 Ru — Ruthenium 6.7.1 Discovery 6.7.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 6.7.3 Chemistry 6.7.3.1 Oxides, chalcogenide, hydride, nitride, and boride 6.7.3.2 Halides 6.7.3.3 Organoruthenium compounds 6.7.4 Major uses 6.8 45 Rh — Rhodium 6.8.1 Discovery 6.8.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 6.8.3 Chemistry 6.8.3.1 Oxides 6.8.3.2 Halides 6.8.3.3 Organorhodium compounds 6.8.4 Major uses 6.9 46 Pd — Palladium 6.9.1 Discovery 6.9.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 6.9.3 Chemistry 6.9.3.1 Oxide 6.9.3.2 Hydrides 6.9.3.3 Halides 6.9.3.4 Pd(III) compounds 6.9.3.5 Organopalladium compounds 6.9.4 Major uses 6.10 47 Ag — Silver 6.10.1 Discovery 6.10.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 6.10.3 Chemistry 6.10.3.1 Oxides and chalcogenides 6.10.3.2 Halides 6.10.3.3 Nitrate, carbonate, and fulminate 6.10.3.4 Organosilver compounds 6.10.4 Major uses 6.11 48 Cd — Cadmium 6.11.1 Discovery 6.11.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 6.11.3 Chemistry 6.11.3.1 Oxide 6.11.3.2 Chalcogenides and hydride 6.11.3.3 Halides 6.11.3.4 Organocadmium compounds 6.11.4 Major uses 6.12 49 In — Indium 6.12.1 Discovery 6.12.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 6.12.3 Chemistry 6.12.3.1 Oxides and hydroxides 6.12.3.2 Hydrides, nitrides, and phosphides 6.12.3.3 Halides 6.12.3.4 Chalcogenides 6.12.3.5 Organoindium compounds 6.12.4 Major uses 6.13 50 Sn — Tin 6.13.1 Discovery 6.13.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 6.13.3 Chemistry 6.13.3.1 Oxides, hydrides and nitrates 6.13.3.2 Halides 6.13.3.3 Chalcogenides 6.13.3.4 Organotin compounds 6.13.4 Major uses 6.14 51 Sb — Antimony 6.14.1 Discovery 6.14.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 6.14.3 Chemistry 6.14.3.1 Reactions with oxygen and hydrogen 6.14.3.2 Reactions with halides 6.14.3.3 Chalcogenides 6.14.3.4 Reactions with acids 6.14.3.5 Organoantimony compounds 6.14.4 Major uses 6.15 52 Te — Tellurium 6.15.1 Discovery 6.15.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 6.15.3 Chemistry 6.15.3.1 Oxides and hydrides 6.15.3.2 Halides 6.15.3.3 Tellurides 6.15.3.4 Reactions with acids 6.15.3.5 Organotellurium compounds 6.15.4 Major uses 6.16 53 I — Iodine 6.16.1 Discovery 6.16.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 6.16.3 Chemistry 6.16.3.1 Iodides 6.16.3.2 Nitrides 6.16.3.3 Reactions with oxygen 6.16.3.4 Reactions with acids 6.16.3.5 Organoiodine compounds 6.16.4 Major uses References Further reading 7 Periods 6 and 7 (including lanthanides and actinides) 7.1 55 Cs — Cesium 7.1.1 Discovery 7.1.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 7.1.3 Chemistry 7.1.3.1 Alloys 7.1.3.2 Reactions with oxygen 7.1.3.3 Reactions with halogens and chalcogenides 7.1.3.4 Salts 7.1.3.5 Organocesium compounds 7.1.4 Major uses 7.2 56 Ba — Barium 7.2.1 Discovery 7.2.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 7.2.3 Chemistry 7.2.3.1 Oxides, nitrides and hydrides 7.2.3.2 Ammonia 7.2.3.3 Halides 7.2.3.4 Organobarium compounds 7.2.4 Major uses 7.3 57 La — Lanthanum 7.3.1 Discovery 7.3.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 7.3.3 Chemistry 7.3.3.1 Oxide 7.3.3.2 Halides 7.3.3.3 Hydride 7.3.3.4 Coordination compounds 7.3.3.5 Organolanthanum compounds 7.3.4 Major uses 7.4 58 Ce — Cerium 7.4.1 Discovery 7.4.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 7.4.3 Chemistry 7.4.3.1 Reactions with oxygen and chalcogens 7.4.3.2 Reactions with halogens 7.4.3.3 Reactions with acids and oxidizing agents 7.4.3.4 Nitrates 7.4.3.5 Organocerium compounds 7.4.3.6 Ce(IV) 7.4.4 Major uses 7.5 60 Nd — Neodymium 7.5.1 Discovery 7.5.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 7.5.3 Chemistry 7.5.3.1 Reactions with oxygen and water 7.5.3.2 Reactions with halogens 7.5.3.3 Nitrides, phophides, carbides, and sulfides 7.5.3.4 Reactions with acids 7.5.3.5 Organoneodymium compounds 7.5.4 Major uses 7.6 62 Sm — Samarium 7.6.1 Discovery 7.6.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 7.6.3 Chemistry 7.6.3.1 Oxides 7.6.3.2 Chalcogenides 7.6.3.3 Halides 7.6.3.4 Borides 7.6.3.5 Other inorganic compounds 7.6.3.6 Organosamarium compounds 7.6.4 Major uses 7.7 64 Gd — Gadolinium 7.7.1 Discovery 7.7.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 7.7.3 Chemistry 7.7.3.1 Reactions with oxygen and water 7.7.3.2 Reactions with acids 7.7.3.3 Reactions with halogens 7.7.3.4 Other inorganic compounds 7.7.3.5 Organogadolinium compounds 7.7.4 Major uses 7.8 66 Dy — Dysprosium 7.8.1 Discovery 7.8.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 7.8.3 Chemistry 7.8.3.1 Reactions with oxygen and water 7.8.3.2 Reactions with halogens 7.8.3.3 Reactions with acids 7.8.3.4 Other compounds 7.8.4 Major uses 7.9 70 Yb — Ytterbium 7.9.1 Discovery 7.9.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 7.9.3 Chemistry 7.9.3.1 Reactions with oxygen and water 7.9.3.2 Reactions with halogens 7.9.3.3 Reactions with acids 7.9.3.4 Yb(II) versus Yb(III) 7.9.4 Major uses 7.10 72 Hf — Hafnium 7.10.1 Discovery 7.10.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 7.10.3 Chemistry 7.10.3.1 Reaction with oxygen 7.10.3.2 Halides 7.10.3.3 Borides, sulfides, and carbides 7.10.3.4 Organohafnium compounds 7.10.4 Major uses 7.11 73 Ta — Tantalum 7.11.1 Discovery 7.11.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 7.11.3 Chemistry 7.11.3.1 Oxides, nitrides, carbides, and sulfides 7.11.3.2 Halides 7.11.3.3 Organotantalum compounds 7.11.4 Major uses 7.12 74 W — Tungsten 7.12.1 Discovery 7.12.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 7.12.3 Chemistry 7.12.3.1 Reactions with oxygen and water 7.12.3.2 Halides 7.12.3.3 Carbides, borides, nitrides, chalcogenides, and silicides 7.12.3.4 Organotungsten compounds 7.12.4 Major uses 7.13 75 Re — Rhenium 7.13.1 Discovery 7.13.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 7.13.3 Chemistry 7.13.3.1 Oxides and chalcogenides 7.13.3.2 Borides and hydrides 7.13.3.3 Halides and oxyhalides 7.13.3.4 Organorhenium compounds 7.13.4 Major uses 7.14 76 Os — Osmium 7.14.1 Discovery 7.14.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 7.14.3 Chemistry 7.14.3.1 Oxides 7.14.3.2 Halides 7.14.3.3 Borides 7.14.3.4 Organo-osmium compounds 7.14.4 Major uses 7.15 77 Ir — Iridium 7.15.1 Discovery 7.15.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 7.15.3 Chemistry 7.15.3.1 Oxides, chalcogenides, and hydrides 7.15.3.2 Halides 7.15.3.3 Organoiridium compounds 7.15.3.3.1 Iridium(0) 7.15.3.3.2 Iridium(I) 7.15.3.3.3 Iridium(II), (III), and (V) 7.15.4 Major uses 7.16 78 Pt — Platinum 7.16.1 Discovery 7.16.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 7.16.3 Chemistry 7.16.3.1 Oxides and sulfides 7.16.3.2 Halides 7.16.3.3 Complexes 7.16.3.4 Organoplatinum compounds 7.16.3.5 Organoplatinum(0) 7.16.3.6 Organoplatinum(I) 7.16.3.7 Organoplatinum(IV) 7.16.4 Major uses 7.17 79 Au — Gold 7.17.1 Discovery 7.17.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 7.17.3 Chemistry 7.17.3.1 Oxides and chalcogenides 7.17.3.2 Halides 7.17.3.3 Amalgam 7.17.3.4 Reactions with acids and bases 7.17.3.5 Gold(III) complexes 7.17.3.6 Gold(I) complexes 7.17.3.7 Rare oxidation states 7.17.3.8 Cluster compounds 7.17.3.9 Organogold compounds 7.17.4 Major uses 7.18 80 Hg — Mercury 7.18.1 Discovery 7.18.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 7.18.3 Chemistry 7.18.3.1 Compounds of mercury(I) 7.18.3.1.1 Halides 7.18.3.1.2 Hydrides and chalcogenides 7.18.3.1.3 Sulfate 7.18.3.2 Compounds of mercury(II) 7.18.3.2.1 Halides 7.18.3.2.2 Hydrides and chalcogenides 7.18.3.2.3 Sulfate and nitrate 7.18.3.2.4 Cyanide and thiocyanate 7.18.3.3 Other valence states 7.18.3.4 Organomercury compounds 7.18.4 Major uses 7.19 81 Tl — Thallium 7.19.1 Discovery 7.19.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 7.19.3 Chemistry 7.19.3.1 Oxides and hydroxides 7.19.3.2 Chalcogenides 7.19.3.3 Hydrides and nitrides 7.19.3.4 Halides 7.19.3.5 Organothallium compounds 7.19.4 Major uses 7.20 82 Pb — Lead 7.20.1 Discovery 7.20.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 7.20.3 Chemistry 7.20.3.1 Oxides 7.20.3.2 Chalcogenides 7.20.3.3 Halides 7.20.3.4 Hydrides 7.20.3.5 Negative oxidation states 7.20.3.6 Organolead compounds 7.20.4 Major uses 7.21 83 Bi — Bismuth 7.21.1 Discovery 7.21.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 7.21.3 Chemistry 7.21.3.1 Oxides 7.21.3.2 Halides 7.21.3.3 Hydrides and chalcogenides 7.21.3.4 Organobismuth compounds 7.21.4 Major uses 7.22 90 Th — Thorium 7.22.1 Discovery 7.22.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 7.22.3 Chemistry 7.22.3.1 Reactions with oxygen and water 7.22.3.2 Reactions with chalcogenides and pnictides 7.22.3.3 Hydrides, borides, and carbides 7.22.3.4 Reactions with halogens 7.22.3.5 Coordination compounds 7.22.3.6 Organothorium compounds 7.22.4 Major uses 7.23 92 U — Uranium 7.23.1 Discovery 7.23.2 Mining, production, and major minerals 7.23.3 Chemistry 7.23.3.1 Oxidation states and oxides 7.23.3.2 Hydrides, carbides, and nitrides 7.23.3.3 Halides 7.23.3.4 Organouranium compounds 7.23.4 Major uses References Further reading Name Index Mineral Index Subject Index