The Oxford Handbook of Morphological Theory (Oxford Handbooks)

This volume is the first handbook devoted entirely to the multitude of frameworks adopted in the field of morphology, including Minimalism, Optimality Theory, Network Morphology, Cognitive Grammar, and Canonical Typology. Following an introduction from the editors, the first part of the volume offers critical discussions of the main theoretical issues within morphology, both in word formation and in inflection, as well as providing a short history of morphological theory. In the core part of the handbook, part II, each theory is introduced by an expert in the field, who guides the reader through its principles and technicalities, its advantages and disadvantages, and its points of agreement and disagreement with alternative theories. Chapters in part III explore the bigger picture, connecting morphological theory to other subdisciplines of linguistics, such as diachronic change, language acquisition, psycholinguistics, and sign language theory. The handbook is intended as a guide for morphologists from all theoretical backgrounds who want to learn more about frameworks other than their own, as well as for linguists in related subfields looking for theoretical connections with the field of morphology. Cover The oxford handbook of morphological theory Copyright Dedication Contents Acknowledgements List of Abbreviations The Contributors Chapter 1: Introduction: Theory and theories in morphology 1.1 Welcome 1.1.1 About the volume 1.2 Morphologocal theories 1.2.1 What is the goal of morphology theory? 1.2.2 Where is morphology? 1.2.3 Basic units and processes 1.2.4 Morphology and syntax 1.2.5 Morphology and semantics 1.2.6 Morphology and phonology 1.2.7 Morphology and the lexicon 1.2.8 Taxonomies of theories 1.3 The structure of the handbook 1.3.1 Part I: Issues in morphology 1.3.2 Part II: Morphological theories 1.3.3 Part III: Morphological theory and other fields 1.4 Conclusion PART I: ISSUES IN MORPHOLOGY Chapter 2: A short history of morphological theory 2.1 Antecedents of generative morphology 2.1.1 Edward Sapir 2.1.2 Leonard Bloomfield 2.1.3 Classical American structuralism 2.2 Morphology in classical generative grammar 2.2.1 Early Transformational Grammar 2.2.2 The Aspects theory 2.3 The rediscovery of morphology 2.3.1 Lexicalism in syntactic theory 2.3.2 Generative Morphology comes into its own 2.4 Conclusion: Varieties of morphological theory Acknowledgements Chapter 3: Theoretical issues in world formation 3.1 Introduction: What is the goal of a theory of world formation? 3.2 Theory and structure 3.3 Compoments: The place of world formation in the grammar 3.3.1 The interface with syntax 3.3.2 The interface with phonology 3.4 Morphological theory and lexical semantics 3.4.1 Derivation 3.4.2 Compounding 3.5 Other theoretical issues 3.5.1 Headedness 3.5.2 Productivity and blocking 3.5.3 Affix ordering 3.5.4 Bracketing paradoxes 3.5.5 Derivational paradigms 3.6 Conclusion Chapter 4: Theoretical issues in inflection 4.1 What is inflectional morphology? 4.2 What are the basic units in terms of which a language's inlfectional morphology is defined? 4.3 what sorts of structures does a language's inflectional morphology define? 4.3.1 Amorphousness 4.3.1.1 First reason: a word form’s morphology may underdetermine its content 4.3.1.2 Second reason: a word form’s morphology may overrepresent its content 4.3.1.3 Third reason: a word form’s morphology may misrepresent its content 4.3.2 Paradigms 4.4 What is the relation between concatenative and nonconcatenative inflectional morphology? 4.5 How is the relation between a word form's morphosyntactic properties and its inflectional exponents defined? 4.6 What distinguishes inflectional morphology from other kinds of morphology? 4.7 Conclusion: Is inflectional morphology autonomous, that is, defined separately from syntax? 4.8 Further Reading PART II: MORPHOLOGICAL THEORIES Chapter 5: Structuralism 5.1 Background 5.1.1 Structuralism and morphology 5.2 The architecture of the grammar 5.2.1 Where is morphology: autonomous component or not? 5.3 Basic issues 5.3.1 The representation of morphological processes 5.3.2 The basic units of morphological analysis 5.4 The sub-parts of morphology 5.4.1 The treatment of word-formation 5.4.2 The treatment of inflection 5.5 Interfaces 5.5.1 Morphology–lexicon interface 5.5.2 Morphology–phonology interface 5.5.3 Morphology–syntax interface 5.5.4 Morphology–semantics interface 5.6 Other factors 5.6.1 Variation within and across languages 5.6.2 Language change 5.6.3 Frequency and productivity 5.6.4 The role and relevance of experimental methods 5.7 Concluding remarks 5.8 Further reading Chapter 6: Early genetative grammar 6.1 Morphology in the earliest stages of generative grammar 6.2 The introduction of the lexicon and constraints on transformations 6.3 The lexicalist hypothesis 6.4 Elaborations of the lexicalist hypithesis 6.5 Transformationalist approaches 6.6 General theoretical issues 6.7 Evaluation and legacy Chapter 7: Later generative grammar and beyond: Lexicalism 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Historical backbackground 7.2.1 Early generativism 7.2.2 The Lexicalist Hypothesis 7.2.3 Early lexicalist models (Halle ; Jackendoff ) 7.2.4 Derivation in the lexicalist framework 7.2.5 Inflection in the lexicalist framework 7.2.6 Further developments of lexicalist models 7.3 Units and concepts of lexicalist morpholgy 7.3.1 The lexicon 7.3.2 Words 7.3.3 Minimal lexical units 7.3.4 Conditions on morphological rules 7.3.5 Head 7.4 Conclusion: Lexicalism Today Acknowledgements Chapter 8: Distributed morphology 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Background 8.2.1 Rejecting Lexicalism 8.2.2 The model of DM 8.3 Morphology in DM 8.3.1 Morpheme-based morphology 8.3.2 Item-and-arrangement 8.3.3 Underspecification 8.3.4 Rules 8.3.5 DM as a realizational model 8.4 The interface with phonology in DM 8.5 Major morphological issues in DM 8.5.1 Derivation vs. inflection 8.5.2 Productivity 8.5.3 Blocking 8.5.4 Functional vs. lexical 8.5.5 Allomorphy 8.6 Further research Acknowledgements Chapter 9: Minimalism in morphological theories 9.1 Main Features of minimalist theories 9.1.1 Language as an optimal solution to the externalization of thought 9.1.2 Third factor explanations 9.1.3 Impoverishing UG 9.1.4 The lexicon in orthodox Minimalism 9.2 Reduction of CS principles: Its application to morphology 9.2.1 Deriving lexical restrictions from Merge 9.2.1.1 Deriving grammatical categories 9.2.1.2 Treating restrictions as interface conditions 9.2.1.3 Deriving Aktionsart and argument structure 9.2.2 Removing principles from CS 9.2.2.1 Feature percolation is derived from Merge 9.2.2.2 Deriving (what is left of) the No Phrase Constraint 9.3 Spell-out as a way to restrict the output of CS 9.3.1 Idiosyncratic restrictions of exponents 9.3.2 Rules of spell-out (1): linearization 9.3.3 Rules of spell-out (2): Phrasal spell-out and its consequences 9.4 Inflection: Removing agree rom CS 9.5 Features: How different are heads that get merged? 9.5.1 A feature-free CS 9.5.2 Features as part of CS 9.6 Some concluding remarks Acknowledgements Chapter 10: Optimality theory and prosodic morphology 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Morphological issues raised by prosodic morhology 10.3 Optimizing the 'concatenative ideal' and deviations from it 10.3.1 Constraint types in OT 10.3.2 Segmental dependence 10.3.2.1 Segmental dependence as correspondence 10.3.2.2 Segmental dependence without construction-specific correspondence 10.3.3 Fixed shape as the emergence of the unmarked 10.3.3.1 Morpheme-specific templates 10.3.3.2 Generalized Prosodic Hierarchy-based templates 10.3.3.3 Generalized morpheme-based templates 10.3.3.4 Violation of additivity: nicknames, abbreviations, and other templatic truncations 10.3.3.5 Partial reduplication in theories without Base-RED correspondence 10.3.4 Violations of proper precedence and contiguity 10.3.4.1 Semitic root-and-pattern morphology 10.3.4.2 Infixation 10.4 Evaluation 10.4.1 Contributions of OT to the analysis of prosodic morphology 10.4.2 Unresolved issues 10.5 Concluding remarks Further Reading Chapter 11: Morphology in lexical-functional grammar and head-driven phrase structure grammar 11.1 Background 11.1.1 Overview of LFG 11.1.2 Overview of HPSG 11.2 Basic issues 11.2.1 The representation of morphological processes 11.2.1.1 In LFG 11.2.1.2 In HPSG 11.3 The subparts of morphologh 11.3.1 Word formation 11.3.1.1 In LFG 11.3.1.2 In HPSG 11.3.2 Inflection 11.3.2.1 In LFG 11.3.2.1.1 Multiple exponence 11.3.2.1.2 Constructive morphology 11.3.2.2 In HPSG 11.3.2.2.1 Paradigms 11.3.2.2.3 Variable morph ordering 11.3.2.2.4 Floating affixes and hpsg domains 11.4 Interface with syntax 11.4.1 In LFG 11.4.2 In HPSG 11.5 Further reading and references Acknowledgements Chapter 12: Nature morphology 12.1 The growth of nature morphology 12.1.1 The functionalist nature of NM 12.1.2 The cognitive roots of NM 12.1.3 Naturalness at the different levels of linguistic analysis 12.2 The semiotic basis of NM 12.2.1 Iconicity and semiotic parameters of naturalness 12.2.2 Cognitive endowment and universal parameters of naturalness 12.2.3 Conflicting levels of adequacy 12.3 The strategy of NM 12.3.1 Scales of transparency 12.3.2 Morphotactic transparency and naturalness 12.3.3 The dynamic dimension in morphology and natural language change 12.4 System-dependent naturalness 12.4.1 System adequacy and markedness reduction 12.4.2 The role of paradigms in markedness reduction 12.4.3 Contrasting system adequacy and diagrammaticity 12.5 Conclusion and outlook Acknowledgments Chapter 13: Word and paradigm morphology 13.1 Introduction 13.1.1 The locus of morphological variation 13.1.2 Models and classification 13.2 Words and paradigms 13.2.1 Two models of grammatical description 13.2.2 In defence of WP 13.2.3 Periphrastic expression 13.2.4 Parts and wholes 13.2.5 Gestalt exponence 13.3 The 'item and pattern' model 13.3.1 Morphological organization 13.3.2 Morphological information 13.4 Concluding observations Chapter 14: Paradigm function morphology 14.1 Background 14.2 Basic features 14.2.1 PFM1 14.2.2 PFM2 14.2.3 Deviations from canonical inflection in PFM2 14.2.3.1 Defectiveness 14.2.3.2 Syncretism 14.2.3.3 Inflection classes 14.2.3.4 Deponency 14.3 An illustrative examples of the architecture of PFM2: Bena-bena verb inflection 14.4 Beyond inflection 14.5 Interfaces 14.6 Futuer prospects Chapter 15: Network morphology 15.1 Introduction 15.2 The network morphology framework 15.2.1 Generalized referral 15.3 Case studies 15.3.1 The normal case default and the exceptional case default 15.3.2 Morphological complexity in Nuer 15.3.3 Diachrony 15.4 Conclusion 15.5 Resources Acknowledgements Chapter 16: Word grammar morphology 16.1 Background 16.2 Basic issues 16.3 The subparts of morphology 16.4 Interfaces 16.5 Other properties to be accounted for 16.6 Other factors 16.7 Evaluation 16.8 Further reading Chapter 17: Morphology in cognitive grammar 17.1 Fundamentals 17.2 Morphemes 17.3 Morphological structure 17.4 Unification 17.5 Conclusion Chapter 18: Construction morphology 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Basic tenets 18.2.1 Sign-based 18.2.2 Word-based 18.2.3 Usage-based 18.2.4 Summing up: the basic architecture 18.3 Theoretical tools 18.3.1 Default inheritance 18.3.2 Connectivity and its functions 18.3.3 Unification 18.3.4 Non-compositionality and headedness 18.3.5 Constraints 18.4 Morphological processes 18.4.1 Word formation 18.4.1.1 Derivation 18.4.1.2 Compounding 18.4.2 Multi-word expressions 18.4.3 Inflection 18.5 Special Issues 18.5.1 Language change 18.5.2 Productivity 18.6 Evaluation 18.7 Further Reading Acknowledgements Chapter 19: Relational morphology in the parallel architecture 19.1 Introduction 19.2 The Place of morphology in the parallel architecture 19.3 Productive and nonproductive schemas 19.3.1 Schemas vs. rules 19.3.2 Lexical redundancy rules 19.3.3 Productivity 19.3.4 Two functions of schemas 19.3.5 Are nonproductive schemas necessary? 19.4 Formalizing lexical relations 19.4.1 Inheritance with impoverished entries and full entries 19.4.2 Inheritance without inherent directionality 19.4.3 A-morphousness 19.4.4 Sister relations 19.4.5 Sister relations among schemas 19.5 Summary and conclusions Acknowledgements Chapter 20: Canonical Typology 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Establishing a canon 20.2.1 Identification of the domain 20.2.2 Identification of parameters of variation 20.2.3 Identification of canonical values 20.2.4 Extrapolation of the sample space 20.3 Application to morphology 20.3.1 Inflectional morphology 20.3.2 Derivational morphology 20.4 Future directions of cononical typology 20.5 Conclusion 20.6 Further Reading Acknowledgements PART III: MORPHOLOGICAL THEORY AND OTHER FIELDS Chapter 21: Morphological theory and typology 21.1 Introduction 21.2 The notion of "world" and its problems 21.2.1 Is “wordform” a typologically valid concept? 21.2.2 Inflection vs. derivation and the notion of “lexeme” 21.3 The relation between meaning and form in morphology 21.4 Syntagmatic dimensions of morphological typology 21.5 Paradigmatic dimensions of morphological typology 21.6 Conclusions Acknowledgements Chapter 22: Morphological theory and creole languages 22.1 Goals and main issues 22.2 Introducing creoles and creole morphology 22.2.1 The genesis of creole languages 22.2.2 The bias against creole word structure 22.3 Full reduplication 22.3.1 Survey 22.3.1.1 Meaning and iconicity 22.3.1.2 Morphological form and behaviour 22.3.2 Analysing full reduplication 22.4 Derivation 22.4.1 Survey 22.4.1.1 Superstrate affixes 22.4.1.2 Morphologized free words 22.4.1.3 Affixes of substrate origin 22.4.1.4 Semantic opacity 22.4.2 Analysing derivation 22.5 Inflection 22.5.1 Origins 22.5.2 Form–meaning relation 22.5.3 Analysing creole inflection 22.6 Conclusion 22.7 Further Reading Acknowledgements Chapter 23: Morphological theory and diachronic change 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Word-formation change 23.3 Reanalysis 23.3.1 Affix-telescoping 23.3.2 Resegmentation 23.3.3 Grammaticalization and affixoids 23.3.4 Implications for morphological theory 23.4 Productivity 23.4.1 Morphological change as change in productivity 23.4.2 Factors and explanations 23.5 Conclusion Acknowledgements Chapter 24: Morphological theory and synchronic variation 24.1 Variation: Assumptions and premises 24.2 Variation in morphological processes 24.2.1 Variation in inflection 24.2.1.1 Paradigmatic leveling 24.2.1.2 Heteroclisis 24.2.1.3 Inflectional variation and language contact 24.2.2 Variation in derivation 24.2.2.1 Producing feminine professional nouns 24.2.2.2 Derivational variation and language contact 24.2.3 Variation in compounding 24.2.3.1 Fluctuating between endocentric and exocentric compounds 24.2.3.2 Compound variation and language contact 24.3 Summary Acknowledgements Chapter 25: Morphological theory and first language acquisition 25.1 Introduction 25.2 Linguistic theory and Language acquisition data 25.3 Morphologically complex words: Processing and theory 25.4 Omission of regular past tense inflection in english child language 25.5 Overregularizing irregular verbs and nouns in english child language 25.6 What do other languages show? 25.7 Atypical language acquisition 25.8 Concluding remarks Chapter 26: Morphological theory and second language acquisition 26.1 Inflectional Morphology: Why are some morphemes difficult? 26.1.1 Early studies of morpheme acquisition 26.1.2 Generative approaches to morpheme acquisition 26.1.2.1 Representational deficit approaches 26.1.2.2 The locus of the deficit revisited 26.1.3 Variation at the interfaces 26.1.4 Language tags on morphemes 26.1.5 The phonological interface 26.1.5.1 Right-edge clusters 26.1.6 Production versus comprehension 26.2 From inflectional morphology to derivational morphology 26.3 Compound words 26.4 Next steps Chapter 27: Morphological theory and psycholinguistics 27.1 Overview 27.2 Brief introduction to psycholinguistics 27.3 Psycholinguistic approaches to morpheme representation 27.4 Relevant data and phenomena 27.4.1 Overview 27.4.2 Whole-word frequency and morpheme frequency effects 27.4.3 Morphological priming 27.4.4 Transposed-letter effect 27.4.5 Morpheme position effect 27.4.6 Summary and implications of empirical findings 27.5 Agenda for future works 27.6 Further Reading Chapter 28: Morphological theory and Neurolinguistics 28.1 What is neurolinguistics? 28.2 Neurolinguistic approaches to morphological processing 28.2.1 Morphological processing models 28.2.2 Comprehension of morphology 28.2.2.1 Electrophysiological studies on morphological violations 28.2.2.2 Neuropsychological studies on morphological violations 28.2.2.3 Electrophysiological studies on the comprehensionof derived words 28.2.2.4 Electrophysiological studies on compound comprehension 28.2.2.5 Neuropsychological studies on compound comprehension 28.2.3 Production of morphology 28.3 Future directions Chapter 29: Morphological theory and computational linguistics 29.1 Introduction 29.2 Theoretical background 29.2.1 The balance between rules and lexicon 29.3 Finite state automata and regular languages 29.3.1 Building an Italian word processor with FSAs 29.3.2 Finite State Transducers 29.3.3 Discussion 29.4 Hierarchical lexica 29.4.1 Discussion 29.5 Machine learning of morphology 29.5.1 Supervised learning 29.5.1.1 Memory-based learning 29.5.1.2 Stochastic modelling 29.5.1.3 Rule induction 29.5.1.4 Connectionist approaches 29.5.1.5 Discussion 29.5.2 Unsupervised learning 29.5.2.1 Minimum Description Length 29.5.2.2 Features and classes 29.5.2.3 Adaptive word coding 29.5.2.4 Discussion 29.6 Summary and concluding remarks Chapter 30: Morphological theory and sign languages 30.1 Introduction 30.2 Exploitation of phonology in morphology 30.2.1 Sign phonology basics 30.2.2 Phonological parameters and meaning 30.2.2.1 The non-manuals 30.2.2.2 Ion-morphs 30.2.2.3 Iconicity 30.3 Theoretical issues in morphology 30.3.1 New issue: Complexity vs. simplicity 30.3.2 New issue: reactive effort 30.3.3 Familiar issues: roots and lexical categories 30.4 Morphological processes 30.4.1 Horizontal temporal morphology 30.4.1.1 Affixation 30.4.1.2 Compounding 30.4.1.3 Reduplication 30.4.2 Vertical morphology 30.4.2.1 Incorporation 30.4.2.2 Blends 30.5 Morphosyntax 30.6 Conclusion Acknowledgements References Language index Index of names General index This volume brings together experts from a wide range of disciplines to define and describe tabooed words and language and to investigate the reasons and beliefs behind them. In general, taboo is defined as a proscription of behaviour for a specific community, time, and context. In terms of language, taboo applies to instances of language behaviour: the use of certain words in certain contexts. The existence of linguistic taboos and their management lead to the censoring of behaviour and, as a consequence, to language change and development.0Chapters in this volume explore the multiple types of tabooed language from a variety of perspectives, such as sociolinguistics, anthropology, philosophy, psychology, historical linguistics, and neurolinguistics, and with reference to fields such as law, publishing, politics, and advertising. Topics covered include impoliteness, swearing, censorship, taboo in deaf communities, translation of tabooed words, and the use of taboo in banter and comedy