The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Archaeology (OXFORD HANDBOOKS SERIES)

"Born from the fields of Islamic art and architectural history, the archaeological study of the Islamic societies is a relatively young discipline. With its roots in the colonial periods of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, its rapid development since the 1980s warrants a reevaluation of where the field stands today. This Handbook represents for the first time a survey of Islamic archaeology on a global scale, describing its disciplinary development and offering candid critiques of the state of the field today in the Central Islamic Lands, the Islamic West, Sub-Saharan Africa, and Asia. The international contributors to the volume address such themes as the timing and process of Islamization, the problems of periodization and regionalism in material culture, cities and countryside, cultural hybridity, cultural and religious diversity, natural resource management, international trade in the later historical periods, and migration. Critical assessments of the ways in which archaeologists today engage with Islamic cultural heritage and local communities closes the volume, highlighting the ethical issues related to studying living cultures and religions. Richly illustrated, with extensive citations, it is the reference work on the debates that drive the field today"-- Provided by publisher Cover 1 Islamic Archaeology 4 Copyright 5 Contents 6 List of Contributors 10 Section I: Editors’ Introduction 14 Islamic Archaeology and Islamic Art History: The Special Relationship 17 Islamic Archaeology and Islamization 20 Islamic Archaeology as “Historical Archaeology” in the Middle East 21 Problems of Periodization 22 Organization of the Volume and Final Note 25 References 26 Section II: Central Islamic Lands 30 Chapter 2.1: Northern Syria 34 Historiography and Chronology 35 Urban and Rural Landscapes 39 The Early Islamic City in North Syria 39 The Settlements of the Umayyad Elites 43 The Evolution of Rural Settlement 44 Archaeology of Religion 47 The Defense of the Territory 50 Conclusion 52 References 53 Chapter 2.2: Southern Syria 62 Introduction 62 Geography and Environment 62 Historiography 65 Periodization 67 Urban Spaces 68 Post-Conquest Urban Transformations 68 Tiberias: Growth and Accommodation 70 Jarash: Commerce and Industry 71 Crusader and Post-Crusader Castles 72 Ḥisbān Citadel 73 Rural Spaces 74 Early Islamic “Desert Castles” 74 Villages 76 Central Plateaus of Jordan: The Madaba Plains 76 Negev and Petra Valley 78 Highland Quṣūr and Khirāb 79 Habitation Caves 80 Agriculture and Landscapes 81 Material Culture 83 The Late Antique-Early Islamic Ceramic Transition 83 Handmade Geometrically Painted (HMGP) Ware 84 Rock Inscriptions 85 Conclusion 86 References 86 Further Reading 92 Chapter 2.3: Iraq 94 Southern Iraq and the Irrigation System 96 The Environment 96 Human Development of the Landscape 97 The Main Cities 100 The Early Amsar 100 Baghdad and the Abbasids 101 Imitating Baghdad 104 The Octagon of Qadisiyya (al-Mubarak) 104 Early Castles 105 Samarra 105 Post-Samarran Cities 108 Provincial and Pilgrimage Cities 109 Trade and Artisanal Production 110 Conclusion 111 References 111 Further Reading 113 Chapter 2.4: Egypt 114 Introduction: The Lands of Egypt 114 Historical Overview: The State of the Field 115 The Countryside, Agriculture, and Diet: Rural and Environmental Approaches 118 Daily Life, Trade, and Production: The Story from Artifacts 119 Urbanism: Al-Fustat/Cairo 122 Urbanism: Provincial Cities 123 Conclusion 129 References 130 Chapter 2.5: Persia 136 Introduction 136 Geography and Environment 136 Ecology and Climate 138 Historiography 139 Periodization and Political History 140 Settlements 140 Urban 140 Main Cities of Jibāl 144 Fars Region: The Case of Iṣt ạ khr 148 Some Main Cities in Khorāsān (Iran) 150 Rural 153 Material Culture and Daily Life 155 Conclusion 155 References 156 Further Reading 159 Chapter 2.6: Medieval Turkey 162 Introduction 162 Historiography 164 Archaeology in Turkey in the Late Ottoman Period 164 Islamic Archaeology in the Turkish Republic 165 The Rural Landscape 168 Salvage Archaeology in the Valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers 168 Rural Settlement in the Hatay (Antioch Region) and the Çukurova (Cilician Plain), South Central Turkey 174 Rural Settlement on the Central Anatolian Plateau 175 Seljuk Palaces and Suburban Gardens 176 Urban Landscapes 176 Urban Sites in Eastern and Southeastern Turkey 178 Nautical Archaeology and Conclusion 181 Chapter 2.7: Ottoman Anatolia 186 Why an Archaeology of Ottoman Anatolia? 186 The Art Historical Foundations of Ottoman Archaeology 188 The Pioneers of Scientific Excavations 189 Ethnography as Ottoman Archaeology 192 Urban Archaeology 194 Landscape Archaeology 195 Archaeology of Production and Industrial Archaeology 195 The Archaeology of Monuments 197 Palaces 199 Castles and Fortresses 199 The Future 202 References 202 Further Reading 204 Chapter 2.8: Arabia and the Gulf 206 Historiography 206 Environment 208 Chronology 209 Settlement Types 210 Urban 210 West Arabia (The Hijaz) 210 Central Arabia (Najd) 212 South Arabia (Yemen) 212 Eastern Arabia 213 Rural Settlement 213 Nomadic Life 215 Food, Diet, and Consumption 216 Stimulants 217 Trade 218 Maritime Trade 218 The Indian Ocean 218 The Red Sea 219 The Gulf 219 Overland Trade 221 Industry 221 Religion 222 Islam 223 Other Religions 224 Conclusion 224 References 225 Further Reading 228 Chapter 2.9: Ottoman Europe 230 Introduction 230 The Archaeology of Ottoman Greece 231 Slavic Regions (Balkan Peninsula) 234 Hungarian Territories 238 Romanian Lands 242 Northern Black Sea Region 245 References 247 Further Reading 252 Section III: The Islamic West 254 Chapter 3.1: Ifriqiya and the Central Maghreb 256 Introduction 256 Background: A Brief History of Ifriqiya and the Central Maghreb 256 Islamic Archaeology in North Africa 258 Cities 261 Rural Landscapes 267 Ceramics and Material Culture 270 Archaeology of Religion 272 Conclusion 274 References 274 Chapter 3.2: The Maghreb al-Aqsa 280 Historiography and the History of Research 281 Cities 283 Rural Landscapes 290 Medieval Archaeology in Morocco or Archaeology Without the Study of Material Culture 291 The Challenges 292 Conclusion: Toward a New Islamic Archaeology of Morocco 293 References 294 Chapter 3.3: The Sahara 300 Introduction 300 Historiography 302 Survey of Main Sites 302 Pre-Sahara and Northern Sahara 302 Central Sahara 307 Southern Sahara 309 Trade 313 Urbanism and Architecture 314 Technology 315 Religion and the Spread of Islam into the Sahara 316 Future Directions 318 References 319 Chapter 3.4: Al-Andalus 324 The Construction of an Archaeology of al-Andalus 324 The Urban Landscape 326 The House and Society 328 Rural Landscapes 332 Exploitation of Natural Resources: Water 334 Mining 335 Archaeology of Power, Archaeology of the Palaces 335 Archaeology of Religion 337 Archaeology of Death: Cemeteries, Populations, Beliefs 338 Material Culture: Ceramics 342 The Achievements and Outstanding Issues of Andalusian Archaeology 344 References 345 Chapter 3.5: Sicily 348 History, Historiography, and the Major Debates 348 Funerary Practices, Religious Buildings, and Linguistic Arabization 351 Material Culture and Exchange Networks 352 The Rural World and Agricultural Practices 355 The Cities 361 Conclusion 362 References 363 Chapter 3.6: Contacts Between the Islamic World and Northern Europe in the Pre-Mongol Period 368 Historical Background 369 Before Islam 370 Trade in the 9th and 10th Centuries 371 Dirham Hoards 376 Other Finds 378 From the 11th Century To the Mongols 381 References 382 Section IV: Sub-Saharan Africa 388 Chapter 4.1: Eastern African Coast 390 Introduction 390 Conversion and Presence 391 Histories of East African Islam 391 Identifying Islam Through Archaeology 392 Sectarian Distinctions 396 From Islamic Presence to Islamic Practice 397 Mosques 397 Burials 402 Coins 403 Conclusion 404 References 405 Chapter 4.2: The Nilotic Sudan 408 Introduction 408 Places of Prayer 411 The Mosque 411 Churches Converted into Mosques 413 Other Places of Prayer 414 Education, Literacy, and Social Formation 415 The Awliya (Saints) 417 Cemeteries and Identity 417 The Qubba 419 Practices at Cemeteries 419 Tombstones 421 The Archaeology of Trade 421 Towns and Villages Developed Along Trade Routes 425 The Archaeology of Pilgrimage (Hajj) 425 Conclusion 426 References 428 Chapter 4.3: Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa 430 Introduction 430 Djibouti 432 Eritrea 433 The Dahlak Islands 433 Mainland 434 Ethiopia 435 Northern Route 436 Southern Route: Harar 438 Southern Route: Harlaa 442 Nomads 447 South and South-East Ethiopia 448 Somalia 448 Coastal Sites 449 Mogadishu 449 Somaliland 450 Coastal Trade Centers 450 Inland Stone Towns, Shrines, and Tombs 452 Conclusion 453 References 453 Chapter 4.4: West Africa 460 Introduction 460 Early Muslim Contacts (8th–10th Centuries) 464 Essouk-Tadmekka 464 Tegdaoust and Koumbi Saleh 466 11th to 14th Centuries 467 Essouk/Tadmekka 467 Gao 468 Other Sites 471 Archaeology, Islamization Patterns, and the Empire of Ghana 474 The Empire of Mali 476 15th–18th Centuries 478 The Empire of Songhai 478 The Mande 480 The Rainforest 481 19th Century 483 Conclusion 484 References 485 Chapter 4.5: Central Sudan 494 Introduction 494 Kanem-Borno 497 The Elusive Archaeology of the pre-Islamic Period (8th-11th Centuries) 497 The Archaeology of the Early Islamic Period in Kanem (Mid-11th–14th Centuries) 499 The Archaeology of Islam in Borno (15th–19th Centuries) 503 Hausaland 507 The Archaeology of the Pre-Islamic Period Around Kasar Hausa 509 Early Development of Islam and Islamic Culture in Hausaland (10th–18th Centuries ce) 510 Islamic Heritage and Archaeology in Hausaland (19th-Century Jihad Period and Beyond) 511 Conclusion 514 References 516 Section V: Asia 520 Chapter 5.1: Central Asia 522 Introduction 522 Construction of a Field of Study: From Orientalism to Russian Archaeology in Central Asia 526 The Center and the North of the Amū Daryā Basin 527 A Forced March Along the Amū Daryā Toward the Aral: Khwārazm 535 The Margins of the Black Sand Desert (Kara Kum) 537 The Syr Daryā Basin 541 Border Towns on the Banks of the Steppe 543 Conclusion 546 References 548 Further Reading 553 Chapter 5.2: South Asia 556 Introduction 556 Historical Background 556 Major Sites and Their Remains: 8th to Early 12th Century 565 Muslim Maritime Trading Posts 567 Delhi: Muslim Dominance, 1191 to mid-14th Century 569 Bengal (West Bengal, India, and Bangladesh) 571 Mid-14th to Late 17th Century: Central and South India 573 15th to Mid-16th Century: West India 576 North-West India, 15th Century to the Mughal Era 579 References 581 Chapter 5.3: China 588 Introduction 588 Earliest Muslim Communities in China 591 Examples of Major Islamic Archaeological Sites in China 596 Quanzhou, Zaytun 596 Mosques 598 Museum Collections 599 Material Culture and Burial Practices 600 Cai Guo-qiang Exhibit 603 Photographic Collections 604 Conclusion: Role of China’s Belt and Road Initiative 605 References 606 Further Reading 607 Chapter 5.4: Southeast Asia 608 Introduction 608 Barus (Lobu Tua and Bukit Hasang) 611 Lambri (Lhok Lambaro) 615 Samudera-Pasai (Lhokseumawe) 619 Brunei (Bandar Seri Begawan) 625 Conclusion 633 References 636 Chapter VI: Heritage Management and Community Development: Thematic Introduction Beyond the “Academy: ”Islamic Archaeology and Heritage Management 642 Ironic Roles of Islamic Civilizations 642 Beyond the Academy 643 The Signs of Renewal 646 Heritage Management and the Local Community 649 Summary of Chapters in This Section 654 Conclusion: A Distillation of What These Chapters Contribute to General Understanding of “Islamic Heritage” 657 References 659 Further Reading 660 Chapter 6.1: Community Archaeology in the Islamic World 662 Community Archaeology Projects in MENA and Other Predominantly Islamic Lands 664 Çatalhöyük Research Project, Turkey 664 Community Archaeology Project Quseir, Egypt 665 The Origins of Doha Project, Qatar 665 Jericho Mafjar Project and Jericho Oasis Archaeological Park, Palestine 666 Borobudur Temple, Indonesia 666 Other Community Archaeology-Related Initiatives in Islamic Lands 667 The Abraham Path Initiative 667 American Schools of Oriental Research Cultural Heritage Initiatives 667 Endangered Archaeology in the Middle East and North Africa 668 The Middle Eastern Geodatabase for Antiquities–Jordan 668 Sada Mire’s Programs, Somaliland 669 A Community Archaeology Revolution in Jordan 669 Community-Driven Projects in Jordan 671 The Challenge of Multiple Pasts at Tall Hisban 673 Thirteen Suggestions for Moving Forward with Community Archaeology 677 Acknowledgments 679 References 679 Further Reading 682 Chapter 6.2: Heritage in Context 684 In the Beginning Was the Comité 685 The Colonial Layer 690 Nationalism and Modernization 693 Neoliberalism and Heritage Commodification 696 What Now? 697 References 698 Further Reading 700 Chapter 6.3: Is There an “Islamic” Practice for the Preservation of Cultural Heritage? 704 Introduction 704 Between the “West” and the “non-West” 708 From Islamic Heritage to Muslim Heritage Practices 709 “Islamic” Preservation of Cultural Heritage 712 Discussion and Conclusion 714 References 715 Chapter 6.4: War and Recovery 720 War 720 Recovery 732 References 738 Chapter 6.5: Islamic Heritage in Three Peninsulas: Qatar, Iberia, and the Balkans 744 One History of Islam, Different Islamic Pasts 745 Politics of Discourses About Islamic Pasts 748 People and Islamic Heritage: The Sources of Cultural Construction 751 Current Politics of Islamic Heritage 756 Conclusion: The Challenges and Potential of Islamic Heritage 759 Acknowledgments 762 References 763 Index 768 Northern Syria / Marie-Odile Rousset -- Southern Syria / Bethany J. Walker -- Iraq / Alastair Northedge -- Egypt / Alison L. Gascoigne -- Medieval Persia / Rocco Rante -- Medieval Turkey / Scott Redford -- Ottoman Anatolia / Filiz Yenişehirlioğlu -- Arabia and the Gulf / Andrew Petersen -- Ottoman Europe / Ibolya Gerelyes, Athanasios Vionis, Vesna Bikić, Niculina Dinu, and Svitlana Biliaieva -- North Africa / Corisande Fenwick -- Morocco and the Western Maghreb / Abdallah Fili -- Saharan Africa / Sam Nixon -- al-Andalus / Patrice Cressier and Sonia Gutiérrez Lloret -- Sicily and the Central Mediterranean / Alessandra Molinari -- Northern Europe and Scandinavia / Marek Jankowiak -- The Eastern African coast / Stephanie Wynne-Jones and Jeffrey Fleisher -- The Nilotic Sudan / Intisar Soghayroun El Zein -- Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa / Timothy Insoll -- West Africa / Timothy Insoll -- The Central Sudan and Sahel / Carlos Magnavita and Abubakar Sani Sule -- Central Asia / Pierre Siméon -- South Asia / Mehrdad Shokoohy and Natalie H. Shokoohy -- China / Jacqueline M. Armijo -- Southeast Asia / Alexander Wain -- Moving beyond the "academy" : Islamic archaeology and heritage management / Bert de Vries -- Community archaeology in the Islamic world / Øystein S. LaBianca, Maria Elena Ronza, and Noël Harris -- Heritage in context / Nasser Rabbat -- Is there an "Islamic" practice for the preservation of cultural heritage? / Trinidad Rico -- War and recovery / Stephennie Mulder -- Islamic heritage in three peninsulas / José C. Carvajal López, Jelena Živković, Alkindi Aljawabra, and Rim Lababidi