The Oxford Handbook of Egyptology (Oxford Handbooks)

The Oxford Handbook of Egyptology presents a series of articles by colleagues working across the many archaeological, philological and cultural subdisciplines within the study of ancient Egypt from prehistory through to the end of the Roman Period. The volume seeks to place Egyptology within its theoretical, methodological, and historical contexts, both indicating how the subject has evolved and discussing its distinctive contemporary problems, issues and potential. Transcending conventional boundaries between archaeological and ancient textual analysis, it stresses the need for Egyptology to seek multidisciplinary methods and broader collaborations if it is to remain contemporary and relevant. It therefore serves as a reference work not only for those working within the discipline, but also as a gateway into Egyptology for archaeologists, anthropologists, sociologists and linguists. The book is organized into ten parts, the first of which examines the many different historical and geographical perspectives that have influenced the development and current characteristics of the discipline. Part II addresses the various environmental aspects of the subject: landscapes, climate, flora, fauna and the mineral world. Part III considers a variety of practical aspects of the ways in which Egyptologists survey, characterize and manage landscapes. Part IV discusses materials and technology, from domestic architecture and artefacts through to religious and funerary items. Part V deals with Egypt’s relations with neighbouring regions and peoples, while Part VI explores the sources and interpretive frameworks that characterize different phases of ancient Egyptian history. Part VII is concerned with textual and iconographic approaches to Egyptian culture, and Part VIII comprises discussions of the key aspects of ancient Egyptian scripts and philology. Part IX presents summaries of the current state of the subject in relation to a variety of textual genres, from letters and autobiographies to socio-economic, magical and mathematical texts. The final section covers different aspects of museology and conservation. Cover 1 The Oxford Handbook of Egyptology 4 Copyright 5 Dedication 6 Contents 8 List of Figures 14 List of Tables 24 List of Contributors 26 Introduction: Egyptology in the twenty-first century: an historical curiosity or setting new agendas in multidisciplinary research? 30 Stretching Egyptology beyond European and American perspectives 32 Issues concerning cultural heritage 33 Investigating archaeological landscapes 35 Science in Egyptology 37 Archaeological practice and multi-disciplinarity 38 Debates in ethnicity, human mobility, and cross-cultural contact 39 Society and culture: viewpoints from texts and iconography 44 Problems in the construction of historical narratives 47 Contexts and problem-oriented approaches 50 Bibliography 53 Part I: Egyptology: Perspectives on a Discipline 60 Chapter 1: The nature and history of Egyptology 62 Introduction 62 Ancient sources 63 Medieval, Renaissance, and Enlightenment sources 64 The Napoleonic invasion 66 The early to mid-nineteenth century 67 The late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries 68 Twentieth-century Egyptology 69 Histories of Egyptology 71 Acknowledgements 73 Suggested reading 74 Bibliography 74 Chapter 2: Egyptology and cognate disciplines 77 Introduction: a problematic birth 77 Classification, translation, and identity 79 Egyptology and its objects 82 Writing ancient Egyptian history 83 Literary artefacts and modes of performance 85 Art, cognition, and object biographies 87 Conclusion 88 Suggested reading 88 Bibliography 89 Chapter 3: Egyptology in China 94 History: ancient Chinese works, early Chinese tourists, and the founding of Egyptology in China 94 The first Chinese doctorate in Egyptology 95 Egyptology as a part of general ancient world history 95 Establishing of IHAC 97 Teaching and resourcing Egyptology in China 98 Teaching: the view from IHAC 98 Egyptological research in China: past influences and current trends 98 Current research agendas 100 Popularizing Egyptology in China 102 International collaboration: the way forward 104 Suggested reading 105 Bibliography 105 Chapter 4: Reception of ancient Egypt 108 Scope and history of research 108 Sketch of the historical development 110 The beginning of scientific Egyptology and the persistence of pre-Egyptological concepts 117 The different storylines of the history of art and objects 118 The study of reception: topics, diversity, and interchange 119 Afrocentrism 121 Future research approaches 122 Suggested reading 122 Bibliography 122 Part II: The Natural Environment: Studying the Macro and Micro-Level 126 Chapter 5: Landscapes and environmental history of the Nile valley: A critical review and prospectus 128 Introduction: was the primeval Nile valley a marsh? 128 Sub-saharan analogues for a free-draining, convex floodplain 129 A closer approximation for pharaonic irrigation 130 Critique of the Alleaume thesis on irrigation 131 A manageable Delta 134 Questions about the Faiyum 135 Woodland habitats on a free-draining floodplain 136 Sacred and ornamental trees 137 A desert-edge ecotone (i.e. spatial transition between clusters of habitats) 138 Discussion of the biotic landscape 138 Geoarchaeology and environmental history: Giza as a case study 139 Trends and oscillations of the Nile floods 140 The wider picture of fluctuations in the level of the annual Nile flood 141 Minor Nile branches near the Giza pyramids 144 The challenge of poor floods 144 Aeolian sands versus alluvial wash 145 Exceptional desert flooding 146 Suggested reading 149 Bibliography 149 Chapter 6: Flora of ancient Egypt 154 Introduction 154 Brief history of archaeobotany 154 Artistic evidence 158 Objects placed in funerary contexts 159 Textual evidence 159 Archaeobotanical evidence from settlement sites 160 Sampling methods 161 Species present in ancient Egypt 161 Cereals 165 Other edible plants 166 Oils and fibre-plants 167 Wild grasses 168 Reeds and sedges 168 Legumes 168 Other wild/weed species 169 Trees and palms 169 Discussion: current and future research 171 Suggested reading 172 Bibliography 173 Chapter 7: Ancient Egyptian fauna 180 Introduction 180 Sources 180 Brief history of Egyptian faunal studies 183 Current archaeozoology: a combination of methods 186 Current concerns and future work 188 Suggested Reading 188 Bibliography 189 Chapter 8: The mineral world: Studying landscapes of procurement 194 Introduction 194 Researching procurement landscapes: a brief history 195 Landscape archaeology and the holistic study of procurement sites 200 Practical and theoretical approaches to analysing procurement landscapes: new approaches and case studies 201 The Aswan West Bank: deep histories 203 The Wadi Hammamat: a landscape of contact 207 Future directions: comparative archaeological approaches and local Egyptian initiatives 213 Suggested reading 215 Bibliography 216 Part III: Archaeological Landscapes: Surveying, Characterizing, and Managing 224 Chapter 9: Mapping and topography 226 Introduction: the history of mapping Egypt 226 Applying cartography to archaeological investigations 229 Remote sensing 231 The EES Survey of Memphis 234 The problems and challenges of remote sensing 235 Topography 236 The natural environment 237 Discussion 238 Suggested reading 239 Bibliography 239 Chapter 10: Recording rock inscriptions: Methods and challenges from an Egyptian perspective 243 Introduction 243 Overview of epigraphic research methods used in Egypt 245 The history of epigraphic research in Aswan 245 The Aswan First Cataract: an overview of epigraphic survey work undertaken in the region 246 Recent fieldwork 246 The survey work of the Ancient Quarries and Mines Department 248 Case Study 1: recording the rock inscriptions of the First Cataract region 248 Documentation methods 249 Case Study 2: the central Wadi Hammamat 251 History of epigraphic research in the Wadi Hammamat 252 Problems and challenges 252 English–Egyptian joint mission to Wadi Hammamat 253 Methodology 253 Conclusion and discussion 256 Suggested reading 257 Bibliography 257 Chapter 11: Cultural heritage management in Egypt: Community-based strategies, problems, and possibilities 261 Introduction 261 Cultural heritage management in Egypt: what is the state of play? 262 Community-based heritage: the critique 265 Implementing community-based heritage initiatives in Egypt: an overview 266 Marginalization and the problem of ‘top down’ management and bureaucracy 268 Case study 1. The central Wadi Hammamat: a peopled landscape 269 The communities and potential threats at Wadi Hammamat 270 Communicating a deeper history: stakeholder awareness and expanding the educational, touristic, and economic benefits locally 271 Case study 2. Aswan: new directions in balancing heritage protection with local livelihoods 273 Local dialogues and the case of re-directing modern quarrying and mining 274 Issues still to be resolved: the influence of top down bureaucracy, control and sectional conflict 275 Conclusions and discussion 276 Suggested reading 277 Bibliography 277 Chapter 12: Methods of site survey and excavation in Egypt 281 Introduction 281 Survey methodology 282 Excavation and recording methodology 284 Stratigraphic units and single context recording 285 Layers and levels (Schichten, Planum) 286 Work-step recording (Fundstellen) 286 Lot-and-locus system 287 Section recording 287 The stratigraphic matrix 288 Discussion 288 A case study 289 Current issues—methodology and training 289 Suggested reading 290 Bibliography 291 Part IV: Material Culture 296 Chapter 13: Studying materials and technology: Introduction 298 Introduction 298 The study of materials and technology in Egyptology 298 Ethno-archaeology and experimental archaeology 301 The future for materials and technology in Egyptology 306 Suggested reading 308 Bibliography 308 Chapter 14: Settlement archaeology and the contextualization of domestic artefacts 312 Introduction 312 A brief history of settlement archaeology in Egypt and Nubia 315 Amarna 316 Deir el-Medina 318 The influence of prehistory on settlement archaeology 319 Areas of progress and debate in the archaeology and understanding of ancient Egyptian settlements 319 Demographics and population estimates 320 Ephemeral settlements and encampments 321 Understanding the relationships between people and mud-brick buildings 324 Strategies and problems in settlement archaeology in Egypt: the Gurob Harem Palace Project as case study 326 Studying tools and domestic artefacts in their urban contexts 330 Examining artefacts within their original contexts 330 Refuse disposal mechanisms: exposing the hinterlands and afterlives of workshops 331 Conclusions and discussion 333 Suggested reading 334 Bibliography 335 Chapter 15: Ancient Egyptian pottery 341 Introduction 341 History 341 Fabrics: Vienna System 343 Other fabric classification systems 345 Scientific technologies used for analysis of ancient ceramics (overview) 346 Quantitative analysis 348 Typology 349 Why a good drawing is important 350 Manufacture 351 Function of vessels 352 Strategies to tackle ceramics: consideration of context 352 The art of discarding ceramics from archaeological excavations 354 Going back to material from old excavations 354 Suggested reading 355 Bibliography 355 Chapter 16: Textiles 362 Introduction 362 Linen 362 Current excavations 364 Linen production 365 Storage 366 Cultivation and processing 366 Looms 368 Uses of linen 369 Coloured and patterned textiles 374 What linen means 375 Status and economic values 376 The future for the past 376 Conclusions 378 Suggested reading 378 Bibliography 379 Chapter 17: Funerary equipment 383 Introduction 383 Suggested reading 393 Bibliography 393 Chapter 18: Seals and scarabs 396 Introduction: seals and sealing in ancient Egypt 396 Pseudo-seals and amulet seals 398 The seal-devices 399 Cylinder seals 403 Shape types of cylinder seals 403 Sealing-surfaces of cylinder seals 405 Stamp seals and stamp-seal amulets 406 Stamp-seal terminology 407 Shape types of non-scarab stamp seals 407 Sealing-surface and seal-impressions of non-scarab stamp seals 410 Scarabs 411 Scarab terminology 416 Back design of scarabs 417 Bottom design of scarabs 420 Use of scarabs 427 Suggested reading 428 Bibliography 429 Chapter 19: Mummies and physical anthropology 438 Sources of information 438 The early history of mummies 439 The era of unwrapping 440 The birth of complex mummy studies 442 Holistic mummy studies 443 Current work using science and ancient remains 445 Imaging 445 Palaeopathology and histology 446 Other technologies, specialities, and the resulting data 447 The future of the study of human remains 448 Suggested reading 450 Bibliography 451 Chapter 20: Ancient Egyptian architecture 456 Introduction 456 Discovering ancient Egyptian architecture 457 Internal space, external shape, and landscape 458 From the project to the building 462 Materials and construction techniques 463 Conclusions and future directions of research 466 Suggested reading 467 Bibliography 467 Chapter 21: Statuary 470 Introduction 470 Reception, acquisition, and excavation of statuary 470 Publication and study of Egyptian statuary 472 Materials and manufacture 473 Statue forms 474 Divine statues 474 Royal statues 476 Non-royal statues 477 Suggested Reading 480 Bibliography 480 Chapter 22: Relief sculpture 486 Introduction 486 Types of relief sculpture 486 Carving techniques 490 Historical development of relief sculpture 491 Suggested reading 497 Bibliography 497 Part V: Egypt and its Neighbours: Revisiting Cross-Border Relationships 500 Chapter 23: Africa south of Egypt 502 Introduction 502 Names and terminology 502 The Nile Valley south of Egypt 505 Prehistory 505 The First Intermediate Period 506 The Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period 507 New Kingdom 508 The emergence of Napata 510 Later Napatan period 511 Meroitic period 512 Discussion: beyond Meroe 514 Suggested Reading 515 Bibliography 516 Chapter 24: The Libyans 522 Introduction 522 Names 522 Environment, culture, and geography 524 The environment 525 The Egyptian view of the Libyans: cosmology and history 526 Iconographic evidence 530 Libyan material culture in the New Kingdom: interpreting the archaeological evidence 532 The Libyans in the Third Intermediate Period in Egypt 534 Discussion 537 Suggested reading 538 Bibliography 538 Chapter 25: Western Asia 543 Introduction 543 Background to the study of Western Asia in Egyptology: past influences and current trends 545 Interdisciplinary work 545 Theoretical models 546 Ideological representation 546 Identification and interpretation of ‘foreign’ materials 548 Chronological synchronization 548 Case studies 549 Uruk, Egypt, Canaan, and the rise of the early state 549 Discussion 554 The Bronze Age Empire 555 Future directions of research 558 Suggested reading 560 Bibliography 560 Chapter 26: The Aegean 569 Introduction 569 Chronology 569 The Thera eruption 570 LH IIIA2, Amarna, and Uluburun 571 Contact routes 572 Texts and inscriptions 574 Artefacts and iconography 575 Egypt in the Aegean 576 The Aegean in Egypt 577 The Tell el-Dab’a wall paintings 577 The Theban tomb scenes 579 Future research 579 Suggested reading 580 Bibliography 580 Addendum 599 Part VI: Egyptian History: Exploring Sources and Interpretative Frameworks 600 Chapter 27: The Predynastic Period 602 Introduction 602 The origins of the Predynastic cultures 603 Social structure 607 Predynastic iconography 609 The relationships between early Egypt and the Near East 613 The origins of Egyptian kingship 614 Future directions of research on Predynastic cultures 617 Suggested reading 617 Bibliography 618 Chapter 28: The Early Dynastic Period 625 Introduction 625 Egyptianness versus otherness 627 Development of media 629 Functions of writing, and its relevance for society in the perspective of sociology of knowledge 631 A case-study in media, ideology, and politics: the dual kingship of Narmer 634 Processes and structures in Early Dynastic history 636 Events in Early Dynastic history 638 Names and individuals in Early Dynastic history 641 Memories of the Early Dynastic Period in later Egyptian history 643 Epilogue: the dark side of history 643 Suggested reading 644 Bibliography 644 Chapter 29: The Old Kingdom and First Intermediate Period 648 An historical outline 648 Available data on monuments 651 Available textual data 652 Data deriving from settlements 653 Specific historical issues 654 Periods and dating 654 The Fourth Dynasty 655 The Fifth Dynasty 656 The Sixth Dynasty 657 The end of the Old Kingdom 657 The length of the First Intermediate Period 659 The Ninth and Tenth Dynasties 659 The ‘reunification’ 659 Suggested Reading 660 Bibliography 660 Chapter 30: The Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period 667 Introduction: the sources of data 667 The Eleventh Dynasty 668 The Twelfth Dynasty 670 The Thirteenth Dynasty 674 The Second Intermediate Period: general issues 677 The ‘Hyksos’ culture and rulers 678 The Theban dynasties 679 Future directions of research 680 Suggested reading 681 Bibliography 681 Chapter 31: The New Kingdom 686 Introduction: historical overview 686 The Eighteenth Dynasty 686 The Nineteenth Dynasty 692 The Twentieth Dynasty 696 Sources for New Kingdom history 700 Funerary data 701 Settlement data 702 Future directions of research into New Kingdom history 703 Suggested reading 703 Bibliography 704 Chapter 32: The Third Intermediate Period 713 Introduction 713 Dynasty 21 719 Dynasty 22 723 Dynasty 23 728 Dynasty 22A (Herakleopolitan/Theban Dynasty 23) 730 Dynasty 24/Dynasty 26 732 Other Egyptian kings not belonging to Dynasties 22, 22A, 23, or 24 733 The Twenty-fifth Dynasty 735 The Dynasties and their kings 739 Suggested Reading 740 Bibliography 741 Chapter 33: Egypt in the Late Period 749 Introduction 749 The Twenty-sixth Dynasty 750 The Twenty-seventh Dynasty 755 The Twenty-eighth to Thirty-first Dynasties 757 Future directions for research on Late Period history 759 Suggested reading 760 Bibliography 760 Chapter 34: The Ptolemaic and Roman periods 773 Introduction 773 Art and material culture in the Ptolemaic period 775 Ptolemaic and Roman religion and temples 776 The priesthood in the Ptolemaic period, and the importance of Memphis 777 Hellenistic and Roman cults in Egypt 778 Christianity 779 Egypt’s place in the Roman Empire 780 The administration of Roman Egypt 781 Ptolemaic and Roman archaeology in Egypt 782 Alexandria 783 Naukratis 784 Memphis 784 Conclusions and future research directions 785 Suggested reading 785 Bibliography 786 Part VII: Society and culture: Textual and Iconographic approaches 790 Chapter 35: National administration 792 Introduction 792 The sources and research 792 Writing and archaeology 794 Titles 795 Early Dynastic Period 796 Old Kingdom 797 Middle Kingdom 798 New Kingdom 800 Third Intermediate Period and Late Period 801 Conclusion 802 Suggested reading 802 Bibliography 803 Chapter 36: Localadministration 807 Introduction and research questions 807 Settlement patterns 808 Provinces: the nome system 809 The Old Kingdom 809 The Middle Kingdom 811 The New Kingdom 812 Offices and structures 814 Control of individuals 815 Village administration and local councils 816 Local administration of law 817 Conclusions 817 Suggested reading 818 Bibliography 819 Chapter 37: Law 824 Introduction 824 Terms and concepts 824 The Old Kingdom and the First Intermediate Period 825 Property and its transmission 826 Women’s rights, marriage, and divorce 826 Legal transactions and their documentation 827 Royal decrees 828 Tribunals, court proceedings, and punishment 828 The Middle Kingdom and the Second Intermediate Period 829 Property 829 Legal transactions and their documentation 829 Women’s rights, marriage, and divorce 830 Tribunals, court proceedings, and punishment 830 The New Kingdom and the Third Intermediate Period 830 Women’s rights, marriage, and divorce 831 Legal transactions and their documentation 832 Tribunals, court proceedings, and punishment 833 Suggested Reading 834 Bibliography 834 Chapter 38: Genealogies 838 Introduction 838 Modern research into Egyptian genealogy 840 Early Dynastic to Old Kingdom 840 Middle Kingdom 842 New Kingdom 842 Deir el-Medina 844 Twentieth to Twenty-second Dynasties 844 Late Period 845 Ptolemaic period to Roman period 846 Conclusion 847 Suggested reading 847 Bibliography 847 Chapter 39: Gods, mythology, and cosmology 849 Introduction 849 Sources 850 The gods 851 Gods reflected in animals 852 Multiple forms and names 852 Myth 854 The Osirian myth complex 855 Creation of the universe 856 The solar eye 856 Myths in cultural dynamics 857 Cosmology 857 Conclusion 859 Suggested reading 859 Bibliography 860 Chapter 40: Symbolism and religious iconography 862 Introduction: the origins of Egyptian symbolism 862 The types and uses of symbols 864 Symbolic landscapes and their inhabitants 867 Discussion: studies of Egyptian symbolism—challenges and future directions 869 Suggested reading 871 Bibliography 871 Chapter 41: Theology 873 Introduction 873 Nome Monographs and Mythological Manuals 874 Other priestly sciences 875 Commentaries and discursive texts 875 Readership of theological texts 876 Dating the sources 877 Historical development 877 Conclusion 880 Suggested reading 880 Bibliography 881 Chapter 42: Funerary beliefs and practices 885 The Osiris myth 885 Funerary rituals 886 The ‘Night of the Vigil’ 887 The procession to the tomb 887 The ‘Opening of the Mouth’ ritual 888 The mortuary cult 890 Discussion 891 Suggested reading 891 Bibliography 892 Part VIII: Scripts and Philology 896 Chapter 43: Scripts 898 Representing language: general principles 898 Categories of signs 899 The word level 900 Determinatives/classifiers 901 Historical sketch 902 Origins and early development 902 Hieroglyphic writing 903 Linear hieroglyphs 904 Hieratic 905 Abnormal hieratic and demotic 907 Cultural contacts and influences 908 Obsolescence 909 Coptic 910 Pictoriality and iconicity 910 High-cultural dimensions 912 Registers of writing in a di(/tri-)graphic culture 912 A hieroglyphic tradition 912 Ludic dimensions and enigmatic writing 914 Suggested reading 915 Bibliography 915 Chapter 44: Lexicography 926 The history of lexicography 926 From the decipherment of hieroglyphs to the beginning of work on the Wörterbuch 926 The Wörterbuch 927 After the Wörterbuch 929 Lexicography today 930 Specificities of the lexicography of ancient Egyptian 930 Current research 932 Writing a dictionary today: database vs. dictionary 933 Suggested reading 934 Bibliography 935 Chapter 45: Grammar 941 Introduction 941 Coptic grammars 942 Hieroglyphic Egyptian grammars: early progress 943 The ‘Berlin School’ 945 British research into Egyptian grammar 946 Polotsky and the ‘Standard Theory’ 947 Post-Polotsky developments: the gradual abandonment of Standard Theory 949 Recent developments 950 Bibliography 952 Chapter 46: History of the Egyptian language 959 Introduction: periodization of the language 959 Elements of a cultural and social history 961 Linguistic history: a selective presentation 965 The Afroasiatic background 965 Phonology 967 Nominal morphology and syntax 968 Verbal morphology 969 Functional domains 972 Some further changes 973 Earlier and Later Egyptian 974 Mechanisms and factors of change 975 Suggested reading 978 Bibliography 978 Part IX: Textual Genres: Current Positions and Future directions 986 Chapter 47: Orality and literacy in ancient Egypt 988 Introduction 988 Chronological developments 990 Current debates 996 Suggested reading 998 Bibliography 998 Chapter 48: Historical texts 1000 Introduction: definitions and source material 1000 Chronicles 1002 Royal annals 1002 King lists 1004 Royal narratives 1006 Warfare 1006 Building activities 1007 Private narratives 1008 Future directions in the study of historical texts 1011 Suggested reading 1012 Bibliography 1013 Chapter 49: ‘Autobiographical’ texts 1023 Introduction: the nature of Egyptian autobiographies 1023 Autobiography in the Old Kingdom 1025 The First Intermediate Period 1026 The Middle Kingdom 1028 The New Kingdom 1030 Third Intermediate Period 1031 The Late Period and Ptolemaic and Roman periods 1032 Suggested reading 1033 Bibliography 1033 Chapter 50: Literary texts 1036 Introduction 1036 Definition of ‘literature’ 1037 ‘Instructions’ 1040 ‘Fine speaking’ 1041 Biographies or travel narratives 1042 Use and context 1043 A note on transcription 1045 Suggested reading 1045 Bibliography 1046 Chapter 51: Socio-economic texts 1048 Introduction 1048 Script, language, and material 1048 Methodologies 1049 Information available 1050 Controversies 1053 Problems and prospects for future study 1053 Suggested reading 1055 Bibliography 1056 Chapter 52: Mathematical texts 1062 Introduction 1062 Sources 1063 Characteristics of Egyptian mathematical texts 1064 Social and cultural setting 1065 Historiography and controversies 1066 Suggested reading 1067 Bibliography 1067 Chapter 53: Texts for healing and protection 1070 Introduction 1070 The Egyptological distinction between ‘magical’ and ‘medical’ texts 1070 Formal features of manuscripts 1072 Who were the users of the texts for healing and protection? 1074 Texts on other objects 1075 Texts for healing and protection as sources 1076 Current approaches and research priorities 1077 Suggested reading 1080 Bibliography 1080 Chapter 54: Letters 1084 Introduction 1084 Definition of Letters 1084 Purpose of Correspondence 1085 Writing Materials used for Letters 1086 Formats used for Letters 1086 Chronological survey of letters 1087 Letters as source material 1089 Women’s correspondence 1090 Letters to the dead and gods 1090 Model and literary letters 1091 Problems in understanding letters 1092 New research possibilities 1093 Suggested reading 1094 Bibliography 1095 Chapter 55: Demotic texts 1101 Introduction: definition of demotic 1101 Corpora and publications of museum holdings 1101 Documentary texts 1102 Legal texts (codes/protocols) 1103 Private legal texts 1104 Literary and scholarly texts 1105 Religious texts 1107 Magic 1108 Suggested reading 1109 Bibliography 1110 Chapter 56: Coptic texts 1125 Introduction 1125 Christian, Gnostic, Hermetic, and Manichaean texts 1126 Coptic works concerning monasticism 1127 Saints, martyrs, and other religious figures 1129 Historical writings 1130 Sermons, homilies, hymns, and poems 1130 ‘Sub-literary’ genres 1130 Epigraphic texts 1131 Socio-economic texts 1132 Coptic papyrology 1132 Coptic texts as artefacts 1133 Coptic texts in cultural context: the Monastery of Epiphanius 1134 Suggested reading 1135 Bibliography 1136 Chapter 57: Rock art, rock inscriptions, and graffiti 1140 Introduction 1140 Predynastic rock art: Niloticizing the desert and imaging the cosmos 1141 Early Dynastic rock inscriptions: sealing the desert—ownership, hegemony, and the extension of ordered space 1144 The Old Kingdom: soldiers, miners, and priests 1145 The First Intermediate Period and the early Middle Kingdom: travellers, policemen, and foreigners—personality and history 1146 The Middle Kingdom: expeditions and outposts 1147 The New Kingdom: tourists, Nubia, the borders of the empire, and royal workmen at Thebes 1149 The Third Intermediate Period: formal tableaux, temple annotations, and priestly families 1150 The Late Period 1151 Rock inscriptions, graffiti, and religion 1152 Monumentality, innovation, and intimacy 1155 Tools and techniques 1157 Suggested reading 1157 Bibliography 1157 Chapter 58: Ptolemaic and Roman temple texts 1167 Introduction 1167 State of publication of the temple inscriptions 1169 The writing system, lexicography, grammar 1171 Lexicography 1172 Grammar 1173 Bibliographies, translations, and teaching tools 1174 Studies on content/interpretation 1175 Conclusion 1177 Suggested reading 1178 Bibliography 1178 Chapter 59: Greek and Latin sources 1183 Introduction 1183 Literary sources 1184 Papyrology and epigraphy 1190 Suggested reading 1194 Abbreviations used in this chapter 1195 Bibliography 1195 Part X: Museology and conservation 1200 Chapter 60: Museum collections 1202 Introduction 1202 Acquisition and early collections 1202 Museums and archaeological context 1204 Museums in Egypt 1205 Display and authority 1207 Presenting ancient Egypt(s) 1207 Interpretations 1209 Research 1210 Engaging with visitors 1210 Suggested Reading 1211 Bibliography 1212 Chapter 61: Egyptian museums and storehouses 1216 Introduction 1216 The history of the Egyptian museums 1217 Categories of Egyptian museums 1220 The main Egyptian museums 1222 Local and provincial museums 1225 Archaeological-site museums 1226 Discussion: the problems of Egyptian museums 1227 Archaeological storehouses in Egypt 1227 Discussion 1228 Final word 1230 Bibliography 1232 Chapter 62: Conservation in Egyptological museum collections 1234 Introduction 1234 General considerations 1235 Deterioration processes of inorganic materials 1237 Metal objects 1237 Ceramics, faience, and glass 1238 Limestone and sandstone 1239 Ivory and bone 1239 Deterioration processes of organic materials 1240 Wood 1240 Linen, papyri, cartonnage, and mummies 1240 Discussion: conservation challenges 1242 Suggested Reading 1244 Bibliography 1245 Index 1248 The Oxford Handbook of Egyptology offers a comprehensive survey of the entire study of ancient Egypt from prehistory through to the end of the Roman period. It seeks to place Egyptology within its theoretical, methodological, and historical contexts, indicating how the subject has evolved and discussing its distinctive contemporary problems, issues, and potential. Transcending conventional boundaries between archaeological and ancient textual analysis, the volume brings together 63 chapters that range widely across archaeological, philological, and cultural sub-disciplines, highlighting the extent to which Egyptology as a subject has diversified and stressing the need for it to seek multidisciplinary methods and broader collaborations if it is to remain contemporary and relevant. Organized into ten parts, it offers a comprehensive synthesis of the various sub-topics and specializations that make up the field as a whole, from the historical and geographical perspectives that have influenced its development and current characteristics, to aspects of museology and conservation, and from materials and technology - as evidenced in domestic architecture and religious and funerary items - to textual and iconographic approaches to Egyptian culture. Authoritative yet accessible, it serves not only as an invaluable reference work for scholars and students working within the discipline, but also as a gateway into Egyptology for classicists, archaeologists, anthropologists, sociologists, and linguists. The Oxford Handbook of Egyptology' offers a comprehensive survey of the entire study of ancient Egypt from prehistory through to the end of the Roman period. It seeks to place Egyptology within its theoretical, methodological, and historical contexts, indicating how the subject has evolved and discussing its distinctive contemporary problems, issues, and potential. 0Transcending conventional boundaries between archaeological and ancient textual analysis, the volume brings together 63 chapters that range widely across archaeological, philological, and cultural sub-disciplines, highlighting the extent to which Egyptology as a subject has diversified and stressing the need for it to seek multidisciplinary methods and broader collaborations if it is to remain contemporary and relevant. Organized into ten parts, it offers a comprehensive synthesis of the0various sub-topics and specializations that make up the field as a whole, from the historical and geographical perspectives that have influenced its development and current characteristics, to aspects of museology and conservation, and from materials and technology - as evidenced in domestic architecture and religious and funerary items - to textual and iconographic approaches to Egyptian culture. Authoritative yet accessible, it serves not only as an invaluable reference work for scholars and students working within the discipline, but also as a gateway into Egyptology for classicists, archaeologists, anthropologists, sociologists, and linguists