The Oxford Handbook of Contemporary Middle-Eastern and North African History (Oxford Handbooks)

Cover The oxford handbook of Contemporary Middle Eastern and North African History Copyright Dedication Acknowledgements Contents List of Contributors Note on Transliteration Introduction: Toward A History of the Present The Shifting Grounds of Contemporary Islamism Contemporary History, Interdisciplinarity, and Area Studies in Critical Perspective The Handbook’s Architecture References Part I: Foundations Chapter 1: Environmental History of the Middle East and North Africa From Mediterranean Ecologies to Middle Eastern Oil Ecologies, Expertise, and Urban–Rural Connections: New Paradigms in the Environmental History of MENA References Chapter 2: Fiscal Crisis and Structural Change in the Late Ottoman Economy Foreign Loans and Institutional Reforms to Access InternationalMarkets The Administration of Revenues under the OPDA Foreign Investment After the OPDA Conclusion Bibliography Chapter 3: Foundations of Religious Reform (Islah) and Cultural Revival (Nahda) Muslih and Mujaddid Nahda The When and the Where The Intellectual Flowering of the Seventeenth Century Independent Reasoning (ijtihad), “Nouveau Literacy,” and the Scripturalist Legacy of Wahhabism Inflections Within the Islamic Sciences: Logic vs. Hadith Changes in Pedagogy, Legal Practice, and Canon Publicity, Publicists, and the Public Interest: When the How Makes the Who (and the What) Nahda’s Law? Conclusion Bibliography Chapter 4: Constitutional Revolutions and State Formations in ComparisonIran and Turkey Introduction State Formations and the Middle Class Global Constitutionalism and their Transnational, Regional, and Local Histories The Young Turk Revolution The Revolution in Iran The Aftermath Compared References The Counterrevolution Part II: Formations Chapter 5: The First World War and its Legacy in the Middle East The Course of the War in the Middle East Seferberlik: Civilian Suffering in the Ottoman Great War Wartime Partition Diplomacy and the Postwar State System Conclusion Bibliography Chapter 6: The Levant Mandates The End of the War and Treaty Conferences The San Remo Conference and the Treaty of Sèvres The League of Nations and Anglo-French Colonialism in the Middle East Mandate Governance in Practice Constitutions, Treaties, and State Formation in the Mandates Political Opposition Mandate Structures in Palestine Palestine Constitution and State Formation Mandate Structures in Iraq and Transjordan Iraq and Transjordanian Constitutions and State Formation Mandate Structures in Syria and Lebanon Syrian and Lebanese Constitutions and State Formation Bibliography Chapter 7: The Emergence of Nationalism Imperial Contexts Cultures and Communities Mass Politics and Popular Mobilization Tensions of Nation Bibliography Chapter 8: The Matter of Sectarianism The Emergence of Modern Sectarianism Sectarianism of the Street, Sectarianism of the State Authoritarian Sectarians Towards the Globalization of Sectarianism? References Chapter 9: Kemalism and Beyond Kemalism in its Own Terms Complicating “Facts” Alternative Kemalisms Turkification Kemalism Abroad? . . . and Beyond? Bibliography Chapter 10: Fascism in the Middle East and North Africa The Syrian Social Nationalist Party (SSNP) The Lebanese Phalanges Young Egypt and Egyptian Nationalism Arab Ultranationalism and the 1941 Coup in Iraq Conclusion References Part III: Legacies of War and Revolution Chapter 11: Communism in the Middle East and North Africa: From Comintern Parties to Marxist-Leninist Movements The Origins of Radicalization Sultan-Galiev and Muslim Communism in Central Asia Communism in Iran Turkish Communism Formation of Arab Communist Parties, 1920–48 Palestine: Crucible of Arab Communism Communism on the Nile Syro-Lebanese Communism Communism in a Settler-Colonial Setting: the Algerian Case In al-Nakba’s Wake: Palestinians take Marxism-Leninism to Arabia Monsoon Communism Conclusion: Self-Criticism and Immanent Critique References Chapter 12: Nasserism Nasserism under Nasser Objectives and Praxis Nasserism as Social Justice: Launching the Social Revolution Nasserism as Pan-Arabism and Neutralism: Launching the Political Revolution Cultures of Nasserism: Political and Popular Nasserism Today: Evaluative Standard and Contemporary Political Tradition Nasserism in Protest Evolution: Political Tradition Revolution Conclusion References Chapter 13: A War over the People: The Algerian War of Independence, 1954–1962 Colonial Algeria, 1830–1954 The War, 1954–1962 The FLN-ALN, a Total War, the Use of Violence, Diplomacy, and the Participation of Women The FLN-ALN A Total War The Banalization of Violence A Diplomatic Revolution The Participation of Women and the War Over Women References Chapter 14: Dodging the Perilof Peace: Israel and the Arabs in the Aftermath of the June 1967 War New Empire Territorial Appetite Demographic Danger Two Options Foreign Policy of Deception Impunity Legacy Bibliography Chapter 15: Reliving Tragediesas Historical Reawakenings: Modern Iran and Its Revolutions Defeated History Reminiscences The Spectral Colonial Powers and Reoccurring Past Vengeful Return Lightening the House The Double-edged Sword The Last Straw Concluding Remarks: Present as Past References Newspaper Links Part IV: Neoliberal Authoritarianisms Chapter 16: Capital, Labor, and State: Rethinking the Political Economy of Oil in the Gulf Rentier States and the Gulf Capital in the Gulf The Question of Migrant Labor Conclusion: Emerging Questions and Future Paths Bibliography Chapter 17: Media as Method in the Age of Revolution: Statism and Digital Contestation Historicizing Mediation Colonial Legacies Perennial Revolution Neoliberal Authoritarianism Frameworks and Methodologies Political Economy of Communication Critical Cultural Studies Conclusion References Chapter 18: Counterterrorism and Counterinsurgency in the Neoliberal Age Transformations in Combat in the War on Terror Iron Fist or Velvet Glove? Techniques and Technologies Confinement and Detention Practices Remote Control Weaponry Private Firms Biometrics and Big Data The Irresistible Rise of Proxies Conclusions Bibliography Chapter 19: W(h)ither Arabian Peninsula Studies? Dominant Frameworks in the Study of the Arabian Peninsula Beyond Area Studies? Arabian Peninsula Studies in the Twenty-First Century Saudi Arabia: Knowledge, History, Politics Authoritarianism, Imperialism, and the Politics of Knowledge Production Conclusion References Primary sources Newspapers and Magazines Reports Books and Articles Part V: State, Law, and Gender Chapter 20: Syria’s Economic History: Bumpy Road from Economic Nationalism to Neoliberalism Introduction Class and Capital in Postcolonial Syria A Bird’s Eye View of the Economic History of Syria Prior to the Uprising The Trend of Capital Formation Prior to the 2011 Uprising The Inapplicability of General Investment Theory to the Particularities of Syria Conclusion Bibliography Chapter 21: The Fragmentation of Gender in Post-Invasion Iraq Beyond “Gender in Islam”: The Evolution of Women’s Legal Rights in Iraq The Military, Political, and Economic Genealogy of Gender-Based Violence in Iraq Living and Mobilizing in an Occupied and Fragmented Country Conclusion References Chapter 22: Sextarianism: Notes on Studying the Lebanese State Introduction Sexual Difference in State Registries Census Data Children of Men: Lebanese Citizenship Law Examined Personal Status and Sexual Difference Criminal Law Sextarianism References Chapter 23: Contemporary Israel/Palestine Layered Exclusions of Settler-Colonial Subjects Colonizing the Land of Milk and Honey Demography, Territory, and Jewish Statehood The Contemporary Israeli Incorporation Regime Conclusion References Chapter 24: New Approaches to the Anthropologyof Islamic Movements: Women’s Activism and the Question of Subjectivity Shaping the “Female Muslim Subject” We Have Come to Hate the Low Voice, from this Moment We Shall Not Bow Our Heads! An Islamic Women’s Movement (1990–2007) A Snapshot of Islamic Development Conclusion References Part VI: From Protest Movements to the Arab Uprisings Chapter 25: The Arab Uprisings of 2011 in Historical Perspective Popular Uprisings that Brought Down Presidents for Life Nineteenth-century Comparisons Protests Targeting Regimes Since the 1970s Democratic Genealogies Crowd Unity and Participatory Democracy The People Demand! People Power Weaknesses of People Power Conclusion Bibliography Chapter 26: Political Movements in Bahrain Across the Long Twentieth Century (1900–2015) British Colonialism and the Birth of Ethnosectarianism and Nationalism (1900–1923) Modernized Absolutism Meets Petrodollars (1923–1957) Nationalism Takes Center Stage(1953–1956) Revolutionary Fervor and the MoveUnderground (1956–1971) Labor, Parliamentary Rule, and the Rise of the Petro-Modernist Emirate (1970s) The Rise of Islamists (1979–2000 A Parliamentary Monarchy (of Sorts) (2000–2011) February 14 Explosion and Beyond (2011–) References Chapter 27: Before the Spring:vShifting Patterns of Protest in Rural Egypt Rural Change: Two Watersheds Coping with the Tenancy Crisis: 1992–1997 The Social Cost of Coping Cutting Expenditure Generating Income The Political Cost of Coping Emergence of a Rural Street: The 2000s Conclusion Bibliography Chapter 28: Cascading Liberationand Renewal—Tunisia in History The Return of Ibn Khaldun The Gender “Monument”. . . Pivoting Tahrir Constitutive Histories Carthage: Constructing a Democratic Kingdom Renewal and the Construction of a Constitution Concluding Remarks: Renewal, Decay, and Revolution Bibiography Chapter 29: Arab Youth: Disruptive Generation of the Twenty-first Century? A Disruptive Generation? Youth in an Age of Uprisings The “Youth” Question Arts of Presence and Absence Opting out of Schooling Risk and Insecurity Virtual Learning Communities Virtual Clowns and the Arts of Satire Conclusion References Chapter 30: The Yemeni Uprising of 2011: A Product of Twenty Years of Grassroots Activism Yemeni History 101 Contentious Politics Prior to 2011 Political Parties and the Formation of the Cross-Ideological Opposition Bloc Anṣārullah—Partisans of God (Commonly Known as Huthis) Al-Ḥirāk al-Janūbi—the Southern Movement Street Mobilizations: Public Protests and Strike Action The 2011 Uprising and the Convergence of Movements The School of Democratic Resistance Institutionalized Resistance and the Decline of Revolutionary Principles Conclusion Bibliography Part VII: Crisis and Collapse Chapter 31: The “New Turkey” At Home and Abroad Understanding the “Old” Turkey The “New” Turkey At Home Governing through Polarization From Crisis to Opportunity: The Attempted Coup and its Aftermath The “New” Turkey Abroad: From Atlanticists to Eurasianists Zero Problems War in Syria and the path to zero friends Toward Eurasia Conclusion References Chapter 32: The Crisis of Sovereignty, Ruptured Domination, and the Kurdish Quest for Democratic Self-Government in Syria Introduction The Nation-State and the Stateless The Kurdish Question in Syria: The Sovereign and the Unrepresentable The Crisis of Sovereignty and the Reconstitution of the Kurdish Question The Discursive Formation of the Concept of Democratic Autonomy The Conditions of Possibility of the Concept of Democratic Autonomy Conclusion References Chapter 33: After Gaddafi: Libya’s Path to Collapse Introduction After the Fall: The Lost Year Libya’s Armed Groups: Social, Political, and Economic Roots Civil War and Regional Intervention Conclusion: Truncated Sovereignty and Hybridity References Epilogue: Revolutionary Times in Contemporary History “All of Them Means all of Them” The Revolution Continues . . . References Index Cover The oxford handbook of Contemporary Middle Eastern and North African History Copyright Dedication Acknowledgements Contents List of Contributors Note on Transliteration Introduction: Toward A History of the Present The Shifting Grounds of Contemporary Islamism Contemporary History, Interdisciplinarity, and Area Studies in Critical Perspective The Handbook’s Architecture References Part I: Foundations Chapter 1: Environmental History of the Middle East and North Africa From Mediterranean Ecologies to Middle Eastern Oil Ecologies, Expertise, and Urban–Rural Connections: New Paradigms in the Environmental History of MENA References Chapter 2: Fiscal Crisis and Structural Change in the Late Ottoman Economy Foreign Loans and Institutional Reforms to Access InternationalMarkets The Administration of Revenues under the OPDA Foreign Investment After the OPDA Conclusion Bibliography Chapter 3: Foundations of Religious Reform (Islah) and Cultural Revival (Nahda) Muslih and Mujaddid Nahda The When and the Where The Intellectual Flowering of the Seventeenth Century Independent Reasoning (ijtihad), “Nouveau Literacy,” and the Scripturalist Legacy of Wahhabism Inflections Within the Islamic Sciences: Logic vs. Hadith Changes in Pedagogy, Legal Practice, and Canon Publicity, Publicists, and the Public Interest: When the How Makes the Who (and the What) Nahda’s Law? Conclusion Bibliography Chapter 4: Constitutional Revolutions and State Formations in ComparisonIran and Turkey Introduction State Formations and the Middle Class Global Constitutionalism and their Transnational, Regional, and Local Histories The Young Turk Revolution The Revolution in Iran The Aftermath Compared References The Counterrevolution Part II: Formations Chapter 5: The First World War and its Legacy in the Middle East The Course of the War in the Middle East Seferberlik: Civilian Suffering in the Ottoman Great War Wartime Partition Diplomacy and the Postwar State System Conclusion Bibliography Chapter 6: The Levant Mandates The End of the War and Treaty Conferences The San Remo Conference and the Treaty of Sèvres The League of Nations and Anglo-French Colonialism in the Middle East Mandate Governance in Practice Constitutions, Treaties, and State Formation in the Mandates Political Opposition Mandate Structures in Palestine Palestine Constitution and State Formation Mandate Structures in Iraq and Transjordan Iraq and Transjordanian Constitutions and State Formation Mandate Structures in Syria and Lebanon Syrian and Lebanese Constitutions and State Formation Bibliography Chapter 7: The Emergence of Nationalism Imperial Contexts Cultures and Communities Mass Politics and Popular Mobilization Tensions of Nation Bibliography Chapter 8: The Matter of Sectarianism The Emergence of Modern Sectarianism Sectarianism of the Street, Sectarianism of the State Authoritarian Sectarians Towards the Globalization of Sectarianism? References Chapter 9: Kemalism and Beyond Kemalism in its Own Terms Complicating “Facts” Alternative Kemalisms Turkification Kemalism Abroad? . . . and Beyond? Bibliography Chapter 10: Fascism in the Middle East and North Africa The Syrian Social Nationalist Party (SSNP) The Lebanese Phalanges Young Egypt and Egyptian Nationalism Arab Ultranationalism and the 1941 Coup in Iraq Conclusion References Part III: Legacies of War and Revolution Chapter 11: Communism in the Middle East and North Africa: From Comintern Parties to Marxist-Leninist Movements The Origins of Radicalization Sultan-Galiev and Muslim Communism in Central Asia Communism in Iran Turkish Communism Formation of Arab Communist Parties, 1920–48 Palestine: Crucible of Arab Communism Communism on the Nile Syro-Lebanese Communism Communism in a Settler-Colonial Setting: the Algerian Case In al-Nakba’s Wake: Palestinians take Marxism-Leninism to Arabia Monsoon Communism Conclusion: Self-Criticism and Immanent Critique References Chapter 12: Nasserism Nasserism under Nasser Objectives and Praxis Nasserism as Social Justice: Launching the Social Revolution Nasserism as Pan-Arabism and Neutralism: Launching the Political Revolution Cultures of Nasserism: Political and Popular Nasserism Today: Evaluative Standard and Contemporary Political Tradition Nasserism in Protest Evolution: Political Tradition Revolution Conclusion References Chapter 13: A War over the People: The Algerian War of Independence, 1954–1962 Colonial Algeria, 1830–1954 The War, 1954–1962 The FLN-ALN, a Total War, the Use of Violence, Diplomacy, and the Participation of Women The FLN-ALN A Total War The Banalization of Violence A Diplomatic Revolution The Participation of Women and the War Over Women References Chapter 14: Dodging the Perilof Peace: Israel and the Arabs in the Aftermath of the June 1967 War New Empire Territorial Appetite Demographic Danger Two Options Foreign Policy of Deception Impunity Legacy Bibliography Chapter 15: Reliving Tragediesas Historical Reawakenings: Modern Iran and Its Revolutions Defeated History Reminiscences The Spectral Colonial Powers and Reoccurring Past Vengeful Return Lightening the House The Double-edged Sword The Last Straw Concluding Remarks: Present as Past References Newspaper Links Part IV: Neoliberal Authoritarianisms Chapter 16: Capital, Labor, and State: Rethinking the Political Economy of Oil in the Gulf Rentier States and the Gulf Capital in the Gulf The Question of Migrant Labor Conclusion: Emerging Questions and Future Paths Bibliography Chapter 17: Media as Method in the Age of Revolution: Statism and Digital Contestation Historicizing Mediation Colonial Legacies Perennial Revolution Neoliberal Authoritarianism Frameworks and Methodologies Political Economy of Communication Critical Cultural Studies Conclusion References Chapter 18: Counterterrorism and Counterinsurgency in the Neoliberal Age Transformations in Combat in the War on Terror Iron Fist or Velvet Glove? Techniques and Technologies Confinement and Detention Practices Remote Control Weaponry Private Firms Biometrics and Big Data The Irresistible Rise of Proxies Conclusions Bibliography Chapter 19: W(h)ither Arabian Peninsula Studies? Dominant Frameworks in the Study of the Arabian Peninsula Beyond Area Studies? Arabian Peninsula Studies in the Twenty-First Century Saudi Arabia: Knowledge, History, Politics Authoritarianism, Imperialism, and the Politics of Knowledge Production Conclusion References Primary sources Newspapers and Magazines Reports Books and Articles Part V: State, Law, and Gender Chapter 20: Syria’s Economic History: Bumpy Road from Economic Nationalism to Neoliberalism Introduction Class and Capital in Postcolonial Syria A Bird’s Eye View of the Economic History of Syria Prior to the Uprising The Trend of Capital Formation Prior to the 2011 Uprising The Inapplicability of General Investment Theory to the Particularities of Syria Conclusion Bibliography Chapter 21: The Fragmentation of Gender in Post-Invasion Iraq Beyond “Gender in Islam”: The Evolution of Women’s Legal Rights in Iraq The Military, Political, and Economic Genealogy of Gender-Based Violence in Iraq Living and Mobilizing in an Occupied and Fragmented Country Conclusion References Chapter 22: Sextarianism: Notes on Studying the Lebanese State Introduction Sexual Difference in State Registries Census Data Children of Men: Lebanese Citizenship Law Examined Personal Status and Sexual Difference Criminal Law Sextarianism References Chapter 23: Contemporary Israel/Palestine Layered Exclusions of Settler-Colonial Subjects Colonizing the Land of Milk and Honey Demography, Territory, and Jewish Statehood The Contemporary Israeli Incorporation Regime Conclusion References Chapter 24: New Approaches to the Anthropologyof Islamic Movements: Women’s Activism and the Question of Subjectivity Shaping the “Female Muslim Subject” We Have Come to Hate the Low Voice, from this Moment We Shall Not Bow Our Heads! An Islamic Women’s Movement (1990–2007) A Snapshot of Islamic Development Conclusion References Part VI: From Protest Movements to the Arab Uprisings Chapter 25: The Arab Uprisings of 2011 in Historical Perspective Popular Uprisings that Brought Down Presidents for Life Nineteenth-century Comparisons Protests Targeting Regimes Since the 1970s Democratic Genealogies Crowd Unity and Participatory Democracy The People Demand! People Power Weaknesses of People Power Conclusion Bibliography Chapter 26: Political Movements in Bahrain Across the Long Twentieth Century (1900–2015) British Colonialism and the Birth of Ethnosectarianism and Nationalism (1900–1923) Modernized Absolutism Meets Petrodollars (1923–1957) Nationalism Takes Center Stage(1953–1956) Revolutionary Fervor and the MoveUnderground (1956–1971) Labor, Parliamentary Rule, and the Rise of the Petro-Modernist Emirate (1970s) The Rise of Islamists (1979–2000 A Parliamentary Monarchy (of Sorts) (2000–2011) February 14 Explosion and Beyond (2011–) References Chapter 27: Before the Spring:vShifting Patterns of Protest in Rural Egypt Rural Change: Two Watersheds Coping with the Tenancy Crisis: 1992–1997 The Social Cost of Coping Cutting Expenditure Generating Income The Political Cost of Coping Emergence of a Rural Street: The 2000s Conclusion Bibliography Chapter 28: Cascading Liberationand Renewal—Tunisia in History The Return of Ibn Khaldun The Gender “Monument”. . . Pivoting Tahrir Constitutive Histories Carthage: Constructing a Democratic Kingdom Renewal and the Construction of a Constitution Concluding Remarks: Renewal, Decay, and Revolution Bibiography Chapter 29: Arab Youth: Disruptive Generation of the Twenty-first Century? A Disruptive Generation? Youth in an Age of Uprisings The “Youth” Question Arts of Presence and Absence Opting out of Schooling Risk and Insecurity Virtual Learning Communities Virtual Clowns and the Arts of Satire Conclusion References Chapter 30: The Yemeni Uprising of 2011: A Product of Twenty Years of Grassroots Activism Yemeni History 101 Contentious Politics Prior to 2011 Political Parties and the Formation of the Cross-Ideological Opposition Bloc Anṣārullah—Partisans of God (Commonly Known as Huthis) Al-Ḥirāk al-Janūbi—the Southern Movement Street Mobilizations: Public Protests and Strike Action The 2011 Uprising and the Convergence of Movements The School of Democratic Resistance Institutionalized Resistance and the Decline of Revolutionary Principles Conclusion Bibliography Part VII: Crisis and Collapse Chapter 31: The “New Turkey” At Home and Abroad Understanding the “Old” Turkey The “New” Turkey At Home Governing through Polarization From Crisis to Opportunity: The Attempted Coup and its Aftermath The “New” Turkey Abroad: From Atlanticists to Eurasianists Zero Problems War in Syria and the path to zero friends Toward Eurasia Conclusion References Chapter 32: The Crisis of Sovereignty, Ruptured Domination, and the Kurdish Quest for Democratic Self-Government in Syria Introduction The Nation-State and the Stateless The Kurdish Question in Syria: The Sovereign and the Unrepresentable The Crisis of Sovereignty and the Reconstitution of the Kurdish Question The Discursive Formation of the Concept of Democratic Autonomy The Conditions of Possibility of the Concept of Democratic Autonomy Conclusion References Chapter 33: After Gaddafi: Libya’s Path to Collapse Introduction After the Fall: The Lost Year Libya’s Armed Groups: Social, Political, and Economic Roots Civil War and Regional Intervention Conclusion: Truncated Sovereignty and Hybridity References Epilogue: Revolutionary Times in Contemporary History “All of Them Means all of Them” The Revolution Continues . . . References Index The Oxford Handbook of Contemporary Middle-Eastern and North African History critically examines the defining processes and structures of historical developments in North Africa and the Middle East over the past two centuries. The Handbook pays particular attention to countries that have leapt out of the political shadows of dominant and better-studied neighbours in the course of the unfolding uprisings in the Middle East and North Africa. These dramatic and interconnected developments have exposed the dearth of informative analysis available in surveys and textbooks, particularly on Tunisia, Libya, Yemen, Bahrain and Syria.